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Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

USING DISTANCE LEARNING TO IMPACT

ACCESS OF DIVERSE LEARNERS

TO ADVANCED PLACEMENT PROGRAMS

Nicole S. Fenty and Andrea Allio

Binghamton University, State University of New York

Distance learning has been used as one method to increase access for students who have otherwise been underrepresented in college preparatory courses like Advanced Placement (AP). This study evaluated the impact of a statewide Virtual Advanced Placement (VAP) program on access to AP courses for students from underrepresented populations. Survey and interview data indicate a heavy focus on recruiting students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. However, English language learners and students with disabilities con-tinued to be underrepresented in VAP programs. A discussion of the findings and implications for research and practice are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

Advanced Placement (AP) programs were established in the mid 20th century in an effort to increase rigor for students who had mas-tered typical high school curricula. Generally, AP provides high school students access to college level coursework and allows these stu-dents to, at the discretion of colleges and uni-versities, receive college credit given successful completion of coursework and accompanying exams (Walker & Pearsall, 2012). Some researchers have suggested that

involvement in advanced or rigorous course-work such as AP during high school can have a significant positive impact on students’ aca-demic and social outcomes (Attewell & Domina, 2008; Foust, Hertberg-Davis & Cal-lahan, 2009). Specifically, AP participation has been associated with higher levels of satis-faction with high school experiences, competi-tive advantages for college admission, higher levels of 4-year college enrollment, higher col-lege grade point averages, and greater long-term financial success (Clinedinst & Hawkins, 2009; Flowers, 2008; Taliaferro & DeCuir-

• Nicole S. Fenty, Assistant Professor, Department of Teaching Learning and Educational Leadership, College of Commu-nity and Public Health Academic Building B, Room 236, PO Box 6000. Binghamton University, State University of New York

The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, Volume 18(2), 2017, pp. 39–56

ISSN 1528-3518

Copyright © 2017 Information Age Publishing, Inc.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

40The Quarterly Review of Distance EducationVol. 18, No. 2, 2017

Gunby, 2008). Even stronger positive correla-tions exist on the aforementioned outcomes for those students who both participate in AP cur-riculum and earn passing scores of three out of five or better on AP exams (Bleske-Rechek, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2004; Warne, Larsen, Anderson, & Odasso, 2015).

There are questions, however, about whether AP courses actually increase college readiness or whether the kinds of students who choose to take AP courses are already highly motivated and likely to attend and succeed in college (Foust et al. 2009; Klopfenstein, 2010). In addition, other factors associated with AP (e.g., smaller class sizes, being exposed to higher quality teachers, or associat-ing with students who are more motivated to learn) confound the ability to make specific claims about the benefits of AP programs. Despite the uncertainty about the full impact of taking AP courses, there is some research to suggest that increased access to AP would result in a reduction in the achievement gap experienced by some populations (e.g., stu-dents from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds, students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, and students with diverse academic needs) (Walker & Pearsall, 2012).

Although there is evidence of growth in AP participation among diverse ethnic, social, and academic groups in recent years (Judson & Hobson, 2015), a disparity persists in the num-ber of students from diverse backgrounds rep-resented in college preparatory programs (Barnard-Brak, McGaha-Garnett, & Burley, 2011; Cisneros, Holloway-Libell, Gomez, Corley, & Powers, 2014). Over the last decade, distance education has risen in popularity partly in an effort to increase student access to coursework that may otherwise be unavailable. Distance education can allow schools and dis-tricts to combine small numbers of students to create larger numbers who may access course-work online (Barbour & Mulcahy, 2006; Bur-ney & Cross, 2006). Consequently, distance education has the potential to open up access to courses, such as AP, for students who have otherwise been underrepresented.

The purpose of this paper is to outline infor-mation gathered through an evaluation of a statewide Virtual Advanced Placement (VAP) program. One of the main purposes of the pro-gram was to increase access to AP courses for students who would have otherwise been underrepresented in AP programs. Twenty schools, districts, and school district consortia received grant funding to support implement-ing the VAP program and were evaluated over the course of 18 months. To begin, we will look at the literature examining access to advanced programs for underrepresented groups. We will also examine the literature on the use of distance learning as a method of pro-viding access to underrepresented groups. Then, we will share the procedures and results surrounding our evaluation of the participating schools and districts. Finally we will discuss the implications for schools and districts that use distance learning to increase AP access to students from underrepresented populations.

UNDERREPRESENTED GROUPS

The literature surrounding underrepresented groups and AP focuses on the following themes: issues of access to AP, AP enrollment, AP exams, students with disabilities and AP, and structural supports needed for AP success. See Table 1 for additional details about each study. Although there is literature that exam-ines gender, findings seem to indicate that underrepresentation related to gender is less clear than with other groups (e.g., minorities, low SES, and students with disabilities). Therefore we will not focus on gender in our presentation of the literature.

Access for Underrepresented Groups

The research surrounding access to AP for underrepresented groups examined the impact of school structures, school characteristics, and schoolwide incentives. Researchers inter-viewed over 200 English language learners (ELL) and Latino students and their parents to

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

41

determine the structures in place that encour-age and inhibit AP participation. They found that ELL and Latino students were more likely to take remedial and regular courses than AP courses (Kanno & Kangas, 2014; Walker & Pearsall, 2012). Similarly, researchers exam-ined more than 12,000 students to determine how school characteristics such as SES and proportion of minority students impacted access to AP courses. Researchers found that schools with high populations of minority stu-dents and high populations of students from low SES backgrounds participated less in AP courses (Barnard-Brak et al., 2011). When examining the impact of offering to pay for AP exams on school AP course offerings, Klug-man (2013) found that offering an incentive did not significantly impact AP course offer-ings in schools with high minority or low-income populations. These results across stud-ies suggest that the issue of AP access is com-plicated and often systemic. Researchers across studies have suggested that schools need to examine the following issues related to access: (1) bias in identification and assess-ment practices, (2) teachers and counselors tending to direct certain populations of stu-dents away from AP courses, (3) student fear of failure and alienation, and (4) not being able to afford college tuition costs. These findings suggest that the issue of access is complicated by multiple cultural, sociological, and struc-tural factors. The findings also suggest that both students and staff need training and sup-port to help encourage AP participation among underrepresented groups.

Enrollment for

Underrepresented Groups

The research surrounding enrollment and underrepresented groups examined differences in enrollment across race/ethnicity in specific states. In addition, some researchers also eval-uated open enrollment to determine whether it had a significant impact on enrollments for low SES and minority populations. Several researchers examined data sets from thousands

of public high schools in the state of Texas to determine whether differences exist in AP enrollment across race. Researchers found sta-tistically significant differences among enroll-ment of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian students, with Caucasian students experiencing the highest rates of enrollment and African American students experiencing the lowest rates of enrollment (Klopfenstein, 2004; Moore & Slate 2008; Saenz, Slate, & Joyner, 2011). In addition to race, Klopfen-stein (2004) also examined the effect of SES on enrollment and found that students from low SES backgrounds participated in AP at significantly lower rates. Researchers who examined the impact of open enrollment (i.e., no recommendation or assessment restrictions) on African American student AP enrollment found that despite open access, African Amer-ican students enrolled at significantly lower rates than Caucasian students (Corra, Carter, & Carter, 2011; Corra & Lovaglia, 2012). Results suggest that social pressures (e.g., fear of not being “cool” or “acting White”) may cause African American students to opt out of taking AP courses and may impact discrepan-cies in AP minority enrollment overall. Like the issue of access, results across studies indi-cate that underrepresentation in AP may also involve cultural and sociological factors.

Exam Scores

for Underrepresented Groups

The research surrounding exam scores for underrepresented groups examined changes in AP participation over time, differences in AP exam scores among racial/ethnicity and SES across states, and the impact of incentives on AP exam participation. Researchers who examined how AP exam participation has changed over the last two decades, found an increase in AP exam participation (Judson & Hobson, 2015). However, when Judson and Hobson (2015) evaluated AP exam scores by race, they found that Asian and Caucasian stu-dents scored significantly better than African American and Hispanic students. Similar

42The Quarterly Review of Distance EducationVol. 18, No. 2, 2017

research conducted with several thousand stu-dents in the state of Florida yielded somewhat contrasting results in that Hispanic students experienced the highest passing rates on AP exams (Leonard, Blasik, Dilgen, & Till, 2003). Despite some discrepancies across studies, it appears that students from certain minority groups, especially African American students, have persistently scored lower on AP exams. When African American students AP exam scores are isolated for further examination across individual states, researchers have found that California had the highest percent-age of African American students score a three or higher on AP exams. Furthermore, Texas had the highest percentage of African Ameri-can students scoring below a three on AP exams (Davis, Joyner, & Slate, 2011; Wilson, Slate, Moore, & Barnes, 2014). Researchers suggested that states with higher graduation rates among minority students experienced higher AP exams scores among minority stu-dents. The correlation between graduation rates and AP exam scores supports previous research that suggests the significant impact of structural factors on AP success.

Researchers also evaluated whether provid-ing incentives like open enrollment or paying for the AP exam would impact AP participa-tion. Researchers found that a majority of stu-dents from low income and minority backgrounds benefited from incentives and did take the AP exam (Hallett & Vengas, 2011; Jeong, 2009). Unfortunately, these students were passing the AP exams at low rates. These results suggest that, especially for students from low income and minority backgrounds, factors beyond access (e.g., teacher training and explicit instruction) are needed to support AP exam success.

Students With Disabilities

The research surrounding AP participation among students with disabilities focused on rates of participation, issues of interest, and support. When researchers examined rates of AP participation among students with disabili-

ties, they found that these students were signifi-cantly underrepresented in AP courses (Klopfenstein, 2004; Moore & Slate, 2008). Hitching, Retish, and Horvath (2005) tried to determine if underrepresentation among this population could be attributed to interest in con-tinuing their education beyond high school. Researchers found that a majority of students with disabilities began high school interested in going to college but by the end of high school that interest had waned. Results suggest that students who remain interested in higher edu-cation at the end of high school received high levels of support and encouragement from teachers, counselors, and parents. These find-ings are supported by Schultz (2012), who examined the factors that impacted students with disabilities’ participation in AP. The researchers found that factors such as poor school culture and restrictive admission guide-lines negatively impacted students with disabil-ities. Like Hitching et al. (2005), Schultz (2012) also found that mentoring and teacher support significantly increased the success experienced by this population of students in AP.

DISTANCE LEARNING AND AP

The literature surrounding distance learning and AP focuses on the following two themes: examining the benefits and challenges of dis-tance learning and comparing the efficacy of distance learning with traditional learning environments.

Benefits and Challenges

When researchers examined the benefits and challenges of accessing AP coursework through distance learning environments, they found that a large majority of the students they surveyed expressed satisfaction with their dis-tance-learning environment (Barbour, 2008; Beese, 2014). For those students who dropped their distance-learning course, a majority cited difficulty balancing their schedules and meet-ing course expectations as a rationale for drop-

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

43

ping the course (Beese, 2014; Hannum, Irvin, Banks, & Farmer, 2009). Relatedly, Barbour (2008) suggests that students who are most successful in online learning environments possess good time management skills and are motivated and self-directed learners. Barbour also points out, however, that many students may not already have these skills and may need support in acquiring and developing these skills to be successful in distance learning environments.

Distance Versus Traditional

Researchers surveyed and interviewed stu-dents to determine the impact (e.g., student achievement, performance on AP exams, etc.) of distance learning versus traditional learning environments. They found that students partic-ipating in distance learning environments were more likely to take the corresponding AP exam than those enrolled in traditional learning envi-ronments (Barbour & Mulcahy, 2006; John-ston & Barbour, 2013). When comparing students enrolled in Florida Virtual School (FLVS) with traditional learning environments in Florida, researchers found that virtual par-ticipants scored higher than students enrolled in traditional AP courses across the state (Johnston & Barbour, 2013). The results of this research suggests that enrollment in a dis-tance AP program may not compromise the quality of the content provided to students. In addition, Johnston and Barbour found that Florida Virtual School, partially due to con-certed recruitment efforts, attracted a higher population of minority students to AP courses than traditional environments. This suggests that the distance component may help to alle-viate some of the cultural, sociological, and structural factors that affect the AP participa-tion of underrepresented groups.

STUDY PURPOSE

One important predictor of postsecondary attendance and success is participation in rig-orous college preparation programs such as

AP. Unfortunately, students from minority backgrounds, low-income backgrounds, ELLs, and students with disabilities are least likely to be targeted for involvement in college prepara-tory courses (Klopfenstein, 2004; Walker & Pearsall, 2012). There is some evidence to sup-port the use of distance learning as a method for increasing access to AP coursework for students from underrepresented groups (Beese, 2014; Johnston & Barbour, 2013).

In the current study we seek to merge the lit-erature surrounding underrepresented groups, distance learning, and AP. We examine how implementing VAP across New York state impacted access to AP programing for under-represented groups (i.e., students from minority backgrounds, students from low-income backgrounds, and student with disabil-ities). This study is unique because we use mul-tiple and mixed methods data collection and analysis to examine the impact of a statewide distance-learning program on AP access for underrepresented groups.

The research questions guiding this study include the following: (1) Who have high schools in New York state targeted for increased access to VAP? (2). How does enrollment in the VAP program compare with statewide enrollment across underrepresented groups? (3) What challenges to VAP access have high schools experienced?

METHODS

The data presented in this article is part of a larger evaluation study funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Race to the Top initiative. Other components of the VAP eval-uation (not presented here) included examin-ing student motivation, student engagement, student satisfaction, student content course choice, and distance learning structures across funding recipients. Six staff members (three university faculty members, and three doctoral students) located at a university in the state of New York led the evaluation process.

TABLE 1

Summary of Studies

Author/Date

Study Theme and Purpose

Participants and Setting

Methods

Findings

Barbour (2008)

• Distance learning and AP;

• 38 secondary school students in

• Surveys conducted with student

• 68% of students were satisfied

• Determine the benefits and chal-

rural settings;

participants.

with virtual schooling; E-mail was

lenges of virtual schools on the

• 18 schools in four school districts

found to be the most useful tool;

learning process.

in Canada.

Technical issues and lack of time

found to be a challenge.

Barbour & Mulcahy

• Distance learning and AP;

• Secondary school students in

• Schools surveyed, number

• Significantly higher percentage of

(2006)

• Differences in retention rates in

urban and rural settings;

enrolled in June compared with

students in online courses took AP

AP courses and student achieve-

• 66 schools in Canada.

number who took the AP exam.

exam compared to traditional AP.

ment on AP exams.

44

Barnard-Brak,

Underrepresented groups;

McGaha-Garnett, &

• Examined access to AP courses;

Burley (2011)

• % of low-SES and minority stu-

dents.

Beese (2014

• Distance learning and AP;

• Benefits and challenges of online

learning for AP.

Corra, Carter, & Carter

Underrepresented groups;

(2011)

• Differences in AP enrollment

across race.

Corra & Lovaglia

Underrepresented groups; Under-

(2012)

representation of African Ameri-

cans in AP courses.

12,144 adolescent high school stu- •Data obtained from National Cen-

dents across the nation.ter of Education Statistics.

Twelfth-grade students academi-Participants were interviewed and

cally at risk (e.g., low income);surveyed. Student course docu-

Urban public high school in Ohio.ments were analyzed.

Five high schools in a North Caro- •Examined enrollment statistics for

lina public school district with a47 core courses across disciplines.

total enrollment of 5,470 students.

Six high schools in North CarolinaExamined 70 core courses across

with total enrollment of 6,656.disciplines.

Percentage of low-SES and minority students in a school cor-related with reduced number of AP courses available.

62% of students dropped their AP course. Students reported diffi-culty managing their schedule, and meeting course expectations.

Caucasian students make up the majority of students enrolled in AP. African Americans were choosing to take less challenging courses for social reasons.

Caucasian students make up 60– 84% of AP enrollment depending on school; African Americans choosing less advanced courses.

The Quarterly Review of Distance Education

Davis, Joyner, & Slate

Underrepresented groups;

(2011)

Differences in AP exam scores for

African American students across

states.

• 57,774 African American students

• Archival test scores collected from

• African American students in Cal-

from Texas, California, and Geor-

the College Board website.

ifornia were most likely to score a

gia.

3 and better on the AP exams. Stu-

dents in Texas had a lower AP par-

ticipation and level of

achievement on AP exams.

Vol. 18, No. 2, 2017

Hallett & Venegas

Underrepresented groups;

• 48 students from minority and low

• Interviews and analysis of partici-

(2011)

Examined connection between

income backgrounds;

pants’ course taking patterns.

increased access to AP, AP partic-

• 15 different high schools in Los

ipation, and AP exam success.

Angeles.

Hannum, Irvin, Banks,

• Distance learning and AP;

• 417 rural school districts with at

• Surveys and interviews conducted

& Farmer (2009)

• Benefits and challenges of dis-

least 20% low SES backgrounds.

with school district administrators.

tance learning AP programs.

Hitching, Retish, &

Underrepresented groups;

• 110 high school students with dis-

• Individual education plans, transi-

Horvath (2005)

• Examined the prevalence of stu-

abilities at two high schools in

tion plans, and final transcripts

dents with disabilities in AP pro-

western Illinois.

analyzed.

grams.

Jeong (2009)

Underrepresented groups;

• 750 pubic and private 10th-grade

• Students, teachers, and schools

• Impact of paying for AP exam on

schools across the country.

were surveyed; Transcript records,

AP participation among underrep-

students’ courses, and academic

resented groups.

achievement also analyzed.

Participants enrolled in AP

courses at high rates, however,

scored low on AP exams (46% of

participants scored 3 or above).

92.1% of participants reported

being satisfied with distance learn-

ing; time or scheduling and fund-

ing difficulties reported as

barriers.

Most students who started on col-

lege prep track dropped college

prep courses by 11th grade;

switched to vocational track.

AP exam incentive significantly

correlated with AP exam partici-

pation; Minorities and students

from low SES backgrounds less

likely to achieve passing score on

AP exam.

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to

Johnston & Barbour

• Distance learning and AP;

• 189 students enrolled in Florida

(2013)

• Compared performance on AP

Virtual School (FLVS) and tradi-

exam for students enrolled in vir-

tional high schools in the state of

tual versus traditional AP.

Florida.

Judson & Hobson

Underrepresented groups;

• High school AP students across

(2015)

• Trends in growth and achievement

the country.

in AP programs among minority

groups.

Kanno & Kangas

Underrepresented groups;

• 8 ELLs in a low-income high

(2014)

• Examined factors that support and

school in Pennsylvania; ELL

inhibit ELL participation in AP.

teachers, ELL coordinator, school

principal, and guidance counsel-

ors.

Students surveyed and inter-viewed; AP exam scores analyzed.

AP data (enrollment and exam participation) collected from the College Board database from 1996 to 2012 across ethnic groups.

Participants interviewed over time; participants observed in class.

FLVS students scored 5% higher

than traditional students on AP

exam; FLVS had increased

minority participation in AP.

Increase in number of minority

students taking AP exam; African

American and Hispanic students

pass AP exam at decreased rates.

Participants tracked and enrolled

in ELL courses and remedial

courses; Teachers and counselors

recommend students not take

advance courses.

Advanced Placement Programs

(Table continues on next page.)

45

TABLE 1

(Continued)

Author/DateStudy Theme and PurposeParticipants and SettingMethodsFindings

46

Klopfenstein (2004)

Underrepresented groups;

• Hundreds of high schools in

• Examined rates of minority enroll-

Texas; Low income Caucasian,

ment in AP.

Hispanic, and African American

students.

Klugman (2013)

Underrepresented groups;

• Thousands of students in over 400

• Impact of incentive programs (pay

school districts in California.

for AP exams) on access to AP for

students from low-income back-grounds.

Analysis of AP course taking behavior across students by race.

Data collected from the California Basic Educational Data System; Semi-structured interviews with school districts.

Caucasian students participate at the highest rates; Students from low SES backgrounds experienced reduced AP participation by 40%.

Students from wealthy back-grounds more likely to increase participation due to incentive; Results impacted by emphasis on college admission in wealthy school districts.

Kyburg, Hertberg-

Underrepresented groups;

• 3 urban high schools in two mid-

Davis, & Callahan

• Examined factors that support and

Atlantic states; Majority number

(2007)

inhibit participation in AP by

of minority students; free and

minority students.

reduced numbers higher than state

average.

Leonard, Blasik,

Underrepresented groups;

• Thousands of high school students

Dilgen, & Till (2003)

• Examined AP exam rates by race/

in the state of Florida.

ethnicity.

Focus groups, individual inter-views, and observations conducted with teachers, students, counsel-ors, administrators, and coordina-tors.

Data collected from the College Board from 1999–2002.

Supportive student networks and mentoring result in more success with AP programs among minority students.

Hispanic and Asian students enrolled in AP and passed AP exam at the highest rates. African Americans enrolled and passed at the lowest rates.

The Quarterly Review of

Moore & Slate (2008) •

Underrepresented groups;

• 1789 high school across the state

Percentage of students enrolled in

of Texas.

AP courses broken down by eth-

nicity.

Data downloaded from Texas Education website for the 2004– 2006 school years.

Percent of Caucasian students in AP was statistically significantly higher than African American stu-dents; African American students least likely to score 3 or above.

Distance Education

Saenz, Slate, & Joyner

Underrepresented groups;

• All public high schools in Texas. • Data collected from 2006–2008

• Significantly more Caucasian stu-

(2011)

Differences in enrollment in AP

from Academic Excellence Indica-

dents enrolled in AP courses than

courses by race/ethnicity.

tor System at the Texas Education

African American and Hispanic

Agency website.

students.

Vol. 18, No. 2,

2017

Schultz (2012)

Underrepresented groups;

• 36 participants from five public

• Perceptions of parents and staff

schools in upstate New York; 12

about AP participation of students

parents, 12 teachers, 6 guidance

with disabilities.

counselors.

Solorzano & Ornelas

Underrepresented groups;

• California school district with a

(2004)

• School structures that affect stu-

large population of Latino and

dents from diverse racial and eth-

African American students.

nic backgrounds access to AP.

Taliaferro, & DeCuir-

Underrepresented groups;

• 70 urban schools in North Caro-

Gundy (2008)

• Impact of structured support pro-

lina; 11 African American women

gram on minority enrollment in

who were advisors of the local

AP.

American Excellence Association

chapter.

Walker & Pearsall

Underrepresented groups;

• 4 high schools students and their

(2012)

• Policy structures that support and

parents or guardians.

inhibit Latino participation in AP.

Wilson, Slate, Moore,

Underrepresented groups;

• African American male high

& Barnes (2014)

• Performance of African American

school students in Connecticut,

male students on AP exams across

Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts,

states.

and Texas.


Interviewed participants and reviewed high school policies.

Data collected from the California Department of Education from 2000-2001.

Interviews conducted with advi-sors of AEA (a support group for academic achievement for stu-dents of color).

Focus groups conducted with stu-dents and parents.

Data collected from information published on the College Board website.

Counselors and parents often advised students with disabilities not to enroll in AP; Adult mentor-ing important for AP success among this population.

Latino students disproportionately underrepresented in AP; Schools with large minority populations have low AP enrollment.

AEA created and promoted a cul-ture of acceptance and belonging for African American students.

Identification and assessment sys-tems contribute to Latino under-representation in AP; Participants cited college course work a waste of time due to tuition cost and res-idency requirements.

Texas—lowest % of participants scoring 3 or above; Connecticut— highest % of participants with AP exam scores eligible for college credit.

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

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48The Quarterly Review of Distance EducationVol. 18, No. 2, 2017

Participants

Initially, there were 17 grant recipients for the VAP program implementation during the 2013–2014 academic year. These 17 recipients also received a no-cost extension for the 2014–2015 academic year. An addi-tional three recipients received funding to provide VAP programs in 2014–2015. The 20 grant recipients (who will be referred to as grantees) consisted of nine individual school districts, eight Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES), and three BOCES consortia. Grantees represented the southern, central, eastern, and western geo-graphic regions of the state and included the following: school districts and BOCES of about 125,000 to over 1 million students, small cities, rural towns, and individual schools. To qualify for funding, grantees were required to demonstrate that at least 25% of their total student population was from high-poverty backgrounds. In an effort to answer the research questions for this study, our focus will be on data surround-ing administrators, teachers, and students that participated in each grantee’s VAP pro-gram.

Over 200 teachers, 20 administrators, and 3,264 students participated in the VAP pro-gram across grantees. Caucasian Americans represented the majority (54.7%) of stu-dents. Although significantly lower, African Americans represented the next largest pro-portion of participating students (19.1%). Students from Hispanic, Asian, and Other backgrounds made up the smallest propor-tion of the participating VAP population, with 1.3%, .9%, and .6% respectively. We use the term Other to refer to Native Ameri-cans, Pacific Islanders, Caribbean Islanders, Middle Eastern/Arab, and Multiethnic stu-dents. In addition, 57% of students partici-pating in the VAP program were female and 43% were male. Finally, approximately 29% of participating students qualified for free or reduced lunch.

Measures

Several quantitative and qualitative mea-sures were used to answer each of the three study research questions. First, previously existing statewide enrollment data were col-lected from the New York State Education Department (NYSED) website. This allowed for demographic comparisons between state-wide enrollment and VAP enrollment. In addi-tion, in early fall (2014), and again in late spring (2015), surveys developed by the six staff members working on the evaluation proj-ect were distributed to program directors over-seeing each grantee’s VAP program. The survey asked grantees to report nonduplicated student enrollment according to the following demographic information: Students who qual-ify for an Individual Education Plan (IEP) or 504; Students who qualify for free or reduced lunch; and students who are English language learners. Additionally, the survey asked for the numbers of students who, as indicated in school records, were African American, Asian (or Asian/Pacific Islander), Hispanic, Cauca-sian, and Other. The survey also asked about the methods used to recruit students for VAP courses as well as which students from under-represented groups were being targeted for recruitment. Finally, interview protocols were used in the data collection process. Staff mem-bers working on the evaluation project devel-oped separate protocols targeting a variety of participants. The focus of the data presented here is on interviews conducted with school administrators, teachers, and students. One example of a question posed to administrators in the project is “how did you recruit students for the VAP program?” One example of a question posed to teachers in the project is-“how do you support students with diverse learning needs in your course(s)?” One exam-ple of a question posed to students in the proj-ect is “how did you become eligible to participate in the VAP program?”

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

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Data Collection Procedures

Archival, public-use data from NYSED (NY State Public School Enrollment (2014– 2015), were retrieved from [https:// data.nysed.gov/enrollment.php?year=2015 &state=yes] and were used to calculate state-level numbers of students in each of the ethnic categories for Grades 9 through 12. These numbers were also specifically collected for students attending school districts affiliated with the VAP project.

Also, surveys were uploaded online via Qualtrics, a software program used to collect both qualitative and quantitative survey data, and the 20 VAP program directors affiliated with the project were asked to collect and com-plete the survey. Although program directors were provided with up to three reminders via e-mail and/or phone, seven of the grantees sub-mitted no responses to the surveys. The survey data presented and discussed in this study is based on submissions from 13 of the grantees that submitted information in spring 2015.

Finally, for focus group interviews, the team formed three pairs, with one faculty member and one graduate student in each pair. Likewise, the grantees were divided into three groups, with six or seven grantees in each group. Each faculty member/graduate student pair conducted focus group interviews with a distinct group of six or seven grantees. The interviews were conducted primarily in person and involved interviewing distinct groups of administrators, teachers, and students. Evalua-tors asked each grantee’s program coordinator to organize and schedule the focus groups. Interviews with each group took approxi-mately 60 minutes to complete. Evaluators typically spent 1 day engaging in interviews with all groups (i.e., administrators, teachers, and students) from a particular grantee. A few of the interviews, often due to weather, were conducted using the videoconferencing hard-ware Cisco TelePresence supported by the vid-eoconferencing software WebEx. At the beginning of each interview participants were

asked to assign themselves a pseudonym and were instructed to use that pseudonym when responding to questions throughout the inter-view.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were calculated to determine the most common methods used to recruit students and to determine which stu-dents were targeted for recruitment. Also, the chi-square goodness of fit test was used to compare the demographic breakdown of stu-dents who participated in the VAP programs to the demographic breakdown of students attending Grades 9 through 12 statewide in 2015. The chi-square goodness of fit test is used to determine if the numbers of students affiliated with the grantee school districts in each of the ethnic categories was notably dif-ferent compared to expected numbers based on overall statewide percentages for 2014/2015. The chi-square goodness of fit test was also used to compare the differences in the percent-ages of students who participated in the VAP program per socioeconomic status, for English Language Learners, and for students who qual-ified for IEPs or 504s. Significant results sug-gest that the groups being compared are dissimilar.

Finally, semistructured focus group inter-views were conducted, recorded, and uploaded into NVivo, a qualitative software program, for analysis. The evaluation team engaged in open and axial coding of the interview data (Creswell, 1998) to achieve a rigorous data analysis process. Data credibility and trustwor-thiness were considered early in the process by having interviews transcribed by a profes-sional transcription service that signed an affi-davit of confidentiality. Researchers then read, coded, and memoed the data independently to reduce persuasion or bias. Each researcher employed an inductive approach, using open coding, reading each of the interviews, and documenting themes.

50The Quarterly Review of Distance EducationVol. 18, No. 2, 2017

RESULTS

Results are presented according to the three research questions provided earlier. The results incorporate archival data collected from the NYSED website, researcher-created sur-vey data, and focus group interview data.

Who Have High Schools in New York State Targeted for Increased Access to VAP?

Grantees reported using multiple methods to recruit students. Descriptive statistics indi-cate that recommendations from school coun-selors (11 grantees) and teachers (eight grantees) comprised the majority of the tools used to recruit students into the VAP program. Parent (two grantees) and student (three grant-ees) application were the tools least likely used by grantees. Grantees were most likely to focus on students from low-income house-holds (12 grantees) and traditionally underrep-resented racial and ethnic groups (eight grantees). Grantees were least likely to focus their recruitment efforts on students with dis-abilities (three grantees).

Across grantees, the majority of focus group interviews conducted with administrators, teachers, and students revealed that grantees actually focused on academically able students when targeting access to the VAP program. One administrator stated, “We used a formula provided by the AP College Board to find out who has the potential to score a 3, 4, or 5 on the AP exam and we used that to generate student rosters.” Another administrator stated, “We wanted to tap into a diverse group of students so we also tapped into the current honors pro-gram.” One student stated, “In order to take the [VAP] class you had to maintain high averages in previous sciences.” Another student stated, “In order to get a teacher recommendation you had to meet a certain standard.” This is consis-tent with the survey data, since academically able students were most likely to be recom-mended by guidance counselors and teachers.

A few stakeholders reported a focus on stu-dents who are economically disadvantaged.

One teacher stated, “The program opened up access to students who wouldn’t be able to afford the AP exam.” Still another teacher stated, “It opened up access to technology for students who normally would not be able to afford an iPad.” Some stakeholders reported focusing on race or ethnicity when targeting students. One administrator revealed, “We had a goal to enroll a certain percentage of minority students, we didn’t meet our goal but we enrolled a large number of students over-all.” Another administrator stated, “We identi-fied students we thought would be appropriate based on certain factors such as race.” This is also consistent with the survey data, which suggests heavy recruitment efforts with low income and minority populations of students.

Surprisingly, some stakeholders were unsure about the types of students that were in their respective VAP programs. One teacher stated, “I’m not given any information about student disability or ELLs.” Another teacher stated, “I personally don’t know of any stu-dents from low SES backgrounds. It doesn't matter to us as teachers.” One administrator stated, “I don’t know how many students with IEPs are in VAP, but I know we have a few.” Another administrator stated, “The districts had to be a high-needs districts to participate, but the students that actually signed up to take the courses you know I don’t have their spe-cific backgrounds.”

How Does Student Enrollment in the VAP Program Compare

With Statewide Enrollment Across Underrepresented Groups?

Enrollment data for students who partici-pated in VAP programs was compared with enrollment data for students in grades 9 through 12 statewide (see Table 2). Based on a chi-square goodness of fit test, the number and percentage of African American students par-ticipating in VAP programs (N = 623, 19.1%) was comparable to the percentage of African American students enrolled in districts state-wide (X 2 (1) = 0.28, .90 > p > .75). Addition-ally, the number and percentage of Asian/

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

51

TABLE 2

Number and Percentages of VAP Student Participants

per Ethnicity and Students in Each Ethnic Category in New York State (2014–2015)

Grantee

Grantee

Grantee

State

State

Observed*

Percentage

Expected**

Number

Percentage

African American

623

19.1

117

137,267

18.7

Asian/Pacific Islander

322

9.8

307

68,681

9.4

Hispanic

337

10.3

800

179,385

24.5

Caucasian

1,787

54.8

1,508

338,465

46.2

Other/Multiethnic***

195

6.0

39

8,928

1.2

Note: * = numbers reported by grantees. ** = grantee number expected based on state percentages. *** = Other represents Native American, Caribbean Islander, and Middle Eastern students.

TABLE 3

Number and Percentages of AP Student Participants per Economic Status,

Disability Services, and ELLs Grantees Compared to Percentages for New York State (2014–2015)

Grantee Reported*

Grantee Percentage

Grantee Expected**

State Percentage***

Free/reduced lunch

1,398

42.8

1,763

54.0

English language

15

0.5

261

8.0

learners

IEP/504

59

1.8

555

17.0

Note: * = numbers reported by grantees; ** = grantee number expected based on state percentages; *** = Percentages based on K–12 student data.

Pacific Islander students participating in VAP programs (N = 322, 9.8%) was comparable to the percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander stu-dents enrolled in districts statewide (X 2 (1) = 0.73, .5 > p > .25). However, the number and percentages of Hispanic (N = 337, 10.3%), Caucasian (N = 1,787, 54.7%), and Other/Mul-tiethnic (N = 195, 6.0%) students participating in VAP programs was not comparable to the percentages of Hispanic (24.5%), Caucasian (46.2%), and Other/Multiethnic (1.2%) state-wide. When all ethnic groups are combined, the overall differences result in populations that are dissimilar (X 2 (9) = 944.61, p < .01).

Based on numbers reported by VAP pro-gram directors from 13 grantees, 42.8% of stu-dents participating in VAP programs were economically disadvantaged, 0.5% were ELL, and 1.8% qualified for IEPs/504s (see Table 3). These percentages are all lower than

expected based on percentages reported for students in grades K–12 by NYSED. For example, the number of students participating in VAP programs who qualified for IEPs/504s (N = 59) was not comparable to the expected number of 555 based on the statewide percent-age of 17% (X 2 (1) = 443.3, p < .01). Likewise, the number of VAP students identified as ELL and economically disadvantaged were also not comparable to the numbers expected based on statewide percentages (X 2 (1) = 261, p < .01, and X 2 (1) = 75.6, p < .01, respectively).

What Challenges to VAP Access

Have High Schools Experienced?

Data surrounding challenges to access revealed two themes—challenges related to students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds and challenges related to students

52The Quarterly Review of Distance EducationVol. 18, No. 2, 2017

who are academically disadvantaged. Some stakeholders focused their concerns on stu-dents who are economically disadvantaged. One administrator revealed, “The initial vision was to target students who are historically underrepresented. That is easier said than done.” Another administrator stated, “Trying to bring more low income students who may not be necessarily thinking about taking an AP course is sometimes a challenge. Students may inherently not be prepared to take AP courses. The rigor they’re experiencing is more than what they’re used to.” Some stakeholders cited the program being challenging for students who are academically disadvantaged. One administrator stated, “Self directed learning is challenging and for some students they said it was too much.” One teacher stated, “I don’t have any students with disabilities (SWDs). I think I had an ELL but he could not contend with this type of program. It was just way too difficult. I don’t know that the program pro-vided any additional support.”

DISCUSSION

Researchers who have examined traditional AP enrollment found that, across states, Afri-can American and Hispanic students were most likely to be underrepresented in AP pro-grams (Klopfenstein, 2004; Moore & Slate, 2008; Saenz et al., 2011). The ethnic, social, and academic disparities that continue to exist in AP participation and completion can be attributed to a variety of reasons. This popula-tion of students often experience reduced access to AP coursework at both the school and individual student levels. At the school level, schools with high minority and low-income populations either offer fewer AP courses or offer fewer types of AP courses (Adelman, 2006; Whiting & Ford, 2009). At the individual student level, researchers have identified bias in the referral and identification process and a lack of early support for students who are at risk (Cisneros et al., 2014). Accord-ing to Walker and Pearsall (2012), factors such

as race and SES are not in themselves predic-tors of what students are capable of learning; however, these factors are often associated with school policies, procedures, and program-ming that impact participation outcomes.

In an effort to combat these issues, Johnston and Barbour (2013) found that when distance learning was used to deliver AP programs, it attracted a higher population of minority stu-dents to AP courses than traditional environ-ments. Moreover, researchers have found that student achievement in distance learning envi-ronments is comparable to outcomes in tradi-tional environments (Bernard-Brak et al., 2004). However, researchers have also found that, in general, students need peer and adult support to ensure successful completion of online AP coursework (Barbour & Mulcahy, 2006).

The grantees in our study reported that Afri-can American students participated in VAP programs at rates proportional to statewide averages. However, Hispanic students partici-pated in VAP at rates lower than they are rep-resented statewide. The positive representation of African American students could be attributed to grantees’ heavy focus on recruit-ment of students from diverse backgrounds and the fact that many grantees offered to pay for the AP exam. A few issues suggested by Walker and Pearsall (2012) may explain the underrepresentation of Hispanic students in this study. In their study, the researchers found that ELL and Latino students and their parents were unlikely to enroll in AP courses because of concerns related to the cost of attending col-lege and the necessary residency requirements for attending and receiving financial aid for college.

In addition to recruiting students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds, the VAP program also focused on increasing the number of students from high poverty back-grounds participating in AP programs. How-ever, we found a lower than expected number of students from low-income backgrounds par-ticipating in VAP programs. This finding is comparable to the finding from Klugman

Using Distance Learning to Impact Access of Diverse Learners to Advanced Placement Programs

53

(2013), who found that issues such as bias in identification and assessment and student fear of failure and alienation played a negative role in increasing AP participation among students from low income backgrounds.

Our study also found a lower than expected number of students with or at risk for disabili-ties participating in VAP programs. This find-ing is comparable to findings from Klopfen-stein (2004) and Moore and Slate (2008), who also found that students with disabilities were significantly underrepresented in AP courses. Assumptions by some school stakeholders about the academic abilities of this population of students could explain some of this. During the focus group interviews in our study, both teachers and administrators suggested that stu-dents with disabilities might not be able to han-dle the rigor of the AP curriculum. Similarly Hitching et al. (2005) found that factors such as admission guidelines and lack of academic and social supports led to a steady decline in the number of students participating in advanced courses from freshman through senior year of high school.

Finally, we examined some of the chal-lenges grantees experienced in implementing the VAP program. Teachers and administra-tors interviewed for this study frequently stated that the target recruitment population for the VAP program (i.e., students from econom-ically and academically disadvantage back-grounds) often possessed poor time management skills and were not self-directed learners. Although Barbour (2008) agrees that success in online learning environments requires good time management skills and self-directed learning, the researcher goes on to state that many high school students lack these skills. Furthermore, lacking these skills should not exclude students from distance learning AP programs and skills that promote better time management and self-directed learning should be explicitly taught (Barbour, 2008).

Limitations

The results of this study suggest there is potential in using distance learning to increase access to AP programs for underrepresented groups; however, there were several limita-tions. First, the survey used to collect enroll-ment data was completed by only 13 of the 20 grantees. If a larger number of the grantees had completed the survey, this would have pro-vided a more precise understanding of how VAP enrollments compared to statewide enrollments. In addition, evaluators were unable to collect AP exam data for the partici-pating students in the VAP program. This pre-vented evaluators from gathering exam participation and exam score data specifically related the VAP program. This would have helped to make comparisons between VAP and traditional AP programs. Although John-ston and Barbour (2013) found positive, sig-nificant differences between distance and traditional AP in AP exam participation and exam scores, our study was unable to bolster understanding in this area. Finally, U.S. Department of Education’s Race to the Top funds were cut after the second year of the project. Many grantees expressed an interest in longer term funding to help determine the ben-efits of the program. Several of the grantees stated that the first year or two of program implementation were focused on getting the program up and running and that they needed more time to test the efficacy of recruitment, retention, professional development, and instructional strategies.

Implications for Practice

The results of this study point to implica-tions for how best to implement distance learn-ing AP programs. First, professional development is needed to support stakeholders who are involved in identifying, recruiting, and retaining students from underrepresented backgrounds. Previous studies and the current study suggest that stakeholders struggle with reducing bias in the process of recruiting stu-

54The Quarterly Review of Distance EducationVol. 18, No. 2, 2017

dents to AP programs. Professional develop-ment is also needed for teachers who work directly with students from underrepresented groups. Teachers need specific ideas about how to differentiate instruction for diverse groups of learners.

Also, social supports in the form of peer-and adult mentoring is also needed to promote recruitment and retention of students from diverse backgrounds. Research has suggested that cultural, sociological, and structural fac-tors can all have a significant impact on AP participation and success of underrepresented groups. When researchers examined school environments and structures that were benefi-cial and supported success among underrepre-sented groups, they found that success could be attributed to consistent mentoring supports, a willingness to provide differentiated support, and encouragement (Kyburg et al., 2007; Sol-orzano & Ornelas, 2004; Taliaferro & Decuir-Gunby, 2008). It is important to note that men-toring for certain populations (e.g., ELL and Latino populations) may be somewhat unique in that there may be an added layer of concern surrounding being able to legally attend col-leges and universities.

Implications for Research

Based on the results, limitations, and impli-cations for practice of this study there are sev-eral possible areas for future research. First, future research should evaluate the best ways to measure students’ time management skills, motivation, and ability to engage in self-directed learning. There is research to support the importance of these skills in successfully navigating distance learning environments, and so it is important that these skills are iden-tified in students early in the recruitment pro-cess. The purpose of assessing these skills should not be to exclude students but to deter-mine which students are in need of additional supports to be successful. Along with these measures, researchers need to devise the best methods to support students who display a need in one or more of these areas.

In addition, more research is needed con-cerning at what rate students enrolled in dis-tance learning AP programs participate in AP exams and student scores on those exams. This will allow us to determine the efficacy of dis-tance learning AP programs. Specifically, if studies consistently show that students enrolled in distance learning AP programs are participating in AP exams at the same or at greater rates than those students participating in traditional AP programs then this may pro-vide a rationale for incorporating more dis-tance learning AP programs. A similar argument can be made if students enrolled in online AP programs are also scoring as well or better on AP exams than those enrolled in tra-ditional AP programs.

Finally, more research is needed to deter-mine the best ways to support students who are academically at risk and working in distance learning environments. Often these students will need some additional help to be successful in the distance learning environment. AP teachers may expect a certain kind of student to take their AP courses and may not be pre-pared to provide these supports. Research is needed that examines the impact of providing teachers with strategies to support a diverse population of students in online learning envi-ronments.

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