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Gender role attitudes, relationship efficacy, and self-disclosure in intimate relationships.

Author: Rebecca M. Horne

Horne, Rebecca M., and Matthew D. Johnson. “Gender Role Attitudes, Relationship Efficacy, and Self-Disclosure in Intimate Relationships.” Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 158, no. 1, Jan. 2018, pp. 37–50. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/00224545.2017.1297288.

Drawing from the intimacy process model and data from 5,042 individuals who remained partnered across Waves 1 and 2 of the German Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam), this study examined the contributions of traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy in predicting levels of self-disclosure within an intimate relationship. Independent samples t-tests demonstrated females scored higher than males on self-disclosure and relationship efficacy measures but lower on traditional gender role attitudes. An ordinary least squares regression analysis revealed relationship efficacy was a stronger predictor of self-disclosure compared to traditional gender role attitudes, which were not associated with self-disclosure. The findings suggest attitudes with an interpersonal motivational system may be especially important for setting the intimacy process into motion within an intimate union.

Keywords: Couple relationships; gender role attitudes; intimacy process model; relationship efficacy; self-disclosure

Intimacy is an important human need that may be best fulfilled within the context of a healthy romantic relationship(Schaefer & Olson, [38]). One important way that intimacy develops is through the process of self-disclosure, or the expression of one's innermost feelings and thoughts to a romantic partner viewed as close, supportive, and trustworthy (Hook, Gerstein, Detterich, & Gridley, [21]; Sinclair & Dowdy, [39]). More frequent self-disclosure has been associated with higher marital satisfaction (Laurenceau, Barrett, & Rovine, [26]), relationship stability (Marshall, [28]), feelings of love and commitment (Spreecher & Hendrick, [40]), and decreased stress (Ditzen, Hoppmann, & Klumb, [15]). While studies empirically support the interpersonal nature of intimacy development and the defining role of reciprocal self-disclosure in this process (e.g., Laurenceau et al., [26]), less research has focused on what intrapersonal characteristics, such as one's personal attitudes, might determine whether self-disclosure will occur in the first place. Understanding the individual factors that facilitate or inhibit self-disclosure is important given its essential role in setting the intimacy process into motion.

Drawing on concepts from the intimacy process model (Reis & Shaver, [34]), the present study examines how a traditional gender role attitude (personal belief that men and women are best suited to distinct social roles that align with their gender identities [Vanyperen & Buunk, [46]]) and relationship efficacy (personal belief in one's ability to fulfill a partner's needs and achieve desired relationship outcomes [Johnson & Anderson, [24]]) are associated with future self-disclosure in an intimate relationship. To explore these associations, data gathered from 5,042 individuals who reported being in an intimate union in Waves 1 and 2 of the German Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam) study are analyzed.

Background

Theoretical framework

This study uses the intimacy process model as a guiding theoretical framework to conceptualize how traditional gender role attitudes, relationship efficacy, and self-disclosure might be associated. The intimacy process model was developed by Reis and Shaver ([34]) to explain the interpersonal process of how intimacy develops (or fails to develop) in romantic relationships. That is, intimacy is not a stable condition defining all romantic relationships, but rather a dynamic process within intimate unions that can be nurtured or weakened depending on the quality, timing, and frequency of emotional sharing and responding. According to the intimacy process model (Reis & Shaver, [34]), intimacy develops in a relationship when individual self-disclosures are met with understanding, validation, and care from the other partner. Moreover, personal motives, goals, and fears will impact an individual's initial level of self-disclosure and how he or she interprets a partner's response to the disclosure (e.g., Knobloch & Carpenter-Theune, [25]). These personal motives can be separated into approach or avoidance motivations, where the former involves factors that increase self-disclosure (e.g., desire for affection) and the latter involves factors that decrease self-disclosure (e.g., fear of vulnerability; Reis & Shaver, [34]). Receiving positive responses to emotional sharing will strengthen one's approach motivations for future self-disclosure and guide the relationship toward the path of intimacy development.

The intimacy process model ultimately positions self-disclosure as the gateway into intimacy development, yet little empirical research has examined what specific factors encourage or discourage one's motivation to self-disclose to an intimate partner in the first place within this theoretical framework and from a longitudinal perspective. For example, although some studies found certain attachment styles (i.e., secure; Mikulincer & Nachshon, [30]) and personality characteristics (e.g., high self-esteem; Spreecher & Hendrick, [40]) were associated with a higher willingness to self-disclose, the cross-sectional nature of these studies preclude the authors' abilities to determine if these attributes stimulate self-disclosure or if self-disclosure might also shape these attributes. Another type of salient motivating factor for emotional sharing might be one's personal attitudes, which are beliefs about a given topic that involve both affective and cognitive assessments (Bergman, [ 7]). Broadly speaking, attitudes can be sorted into general beliefs toward groups or a topic and specific beliefs about engaging in a particular behavior directed toward an individual or situation that impact one's behavior in different ways depending on the characteristics of the individual, situation, and attitude itself (Ajzen & Fishbein, [ 2]). Two attitudinal variables that have been tied to emotional sharing, constructive relationship interactions, and general intimacy processes are traditional gender role attitudes (general belief) and relationship efficacy (specific belief).

Traditional gender role attitudes

Having a traditional gender role attitude might be one personal motivator that impacts an individual's level of self-disclosure and, in turn, the trajectory of intimacy development. Romantic relationships not only provide the closest interpersonal contexts for intimacy to develop, but they also serve as important "institutional site[s]" (Ferree, [17], p. 421) in the private sphere through which equitable or inequitable gender dynamics are negotiated, enacted, and sustained (Thompson & Walker, [43]). Social constructionist theories of gender (Ferree, [17]; West & Zimmerman, [47]) state biological males assume the gender category men when they act in masculine ways (e.g., tough, instrumental, unemotional) and biological females assume the gender category women when they act in feminine ways (e.g., sensitive, relationally-oriented, expressive), a process that encourages men and women to occupy different gender roles deemed suitable and functional for their sex category. These social gendering practices get incorporated into individuals' value systems and inform the development of gender role attitudes, or personal beliefs about what roles and behaviors are appropriate for men and women to engage in within public and private spheres (Constantin & Voicu, [12]). Generally, individuals with traditional gender role attitudes believe men and women should occupy different roles in society based on their distinct gender capacities (e.g., men as breadwinners in the paid labor force and women as nurturers in the home), whereas those with egalitarian gender role attitudes believe men and women should be able to occupy the same roles in any given setting and encourage deviations from strict gender role norms (Vanyperen & Buunk, [46]).

A small body of research has supported the notion that different gender role ideological stances contain different, even conflicting, "rules" regarding emotional expression for men and women in romantic relationships. For instance, in a study of 314 university students reporting on current or past relationships (Neff & Suizzo, [31]) and in another study of 231 dating couples (Rubin, Hill, Peplau, & Dunkel-Schetter, [36]), partners who held traditional gender role ideologies were less emotionally expressive compared to those who held egalitarian gender role ideologies. Rubin and colleagues ([36]) suggested open communication may be easier for couples to accomplish within a context of perceived equality. When examining the intersection of gender role attitudes with an individual's gender, however, self-disclosure outcomes have been more nuanced. Some scholars found equally low levels of self-disclosure from men and women in gender-traditional dating relationships (Marshall, [28]; Rubin et al., [36]). On the other hand, Taniguchi and Kaufman ([42]) analyzed data from 1,458 individuals in marital unions and found gender-traditional Japanese women disclosed more of their troubles and concerns to their partners compared to gender-egalitarian women, but no significant results for men. This finding, however, may also be a product of the Japanese cultural context that promotes gender traditionalism in family life (Taniguchi & Kaufman, [42]). Extant research on traditional gender role ideology and self-disclosure ultimately contains inconsistent findings, which necessitates additional exploration into how these constructs might be related.

It may also be the case that gender role attitudes have a stronger impact on self-disclosure when these beliefs conflict with one's actual relationshipdynamics. For example, McHale and Crouter ([29]) found gender role attitude and family work behavior incongruence was linked to negative marital evaluations up to three years later in a sample of 153 married couples. Compared to individuals who had consistency in their gender role beliefs and work behaviors, women with egalitarian gender ideologies who performed the majority of housework and parenting tasks reported lower marital satisfaction and higher marital conflict, while husbands with traditional gender ideologies who shared housework and parenting with their partners reported lower marital quality. Applied to the present study, individuals experiencing inconsistent gender role beliefs and work behaviors may be less inclined to self-disclose if this inconsistency leads them to perceive their overall relationship more negatively or doubt their partners' desires to incorporate their ideologies into practice. In contrast, belief-behavior incongruence could enhance an individual's willingness to self-disclose to a partner, as emotional sharing might provide a context for expressing the desire to better align one's gender attitudes and relationship processes. To explore this possibility, we test whether women's employment status moderates the association between traditional gender role attitudes and self-disclosure, as women's participation in paid labor deviates from traditional gender role expectations held for women.

Relationship efficacy

In addition to general attitudes about gender roles in society, a specific, relationally-focused attitude that might be associated with self-disclosure is relationship efficacy. Relationship efficacy is a form of self-efficacy, which is broadly defined as the belief in one's ability to accomplish a particular task or perform an action towards a desired outcome (Bandura, [ 3]). Bandura ([ 4]) suggested self-efficacy is an important belief system that impacts how individuals will behave within their particular contexts, as it imbues feelings of mastery that motivate persistence in working towards a valued goal and enhanced satisfaction with the outcome. When applied to the context of an intimate relationship, efficacy beliefs can be directed toward an intimate partner and influence the way one approaches relationship interactions (Doherty, [16]). Based on an efficacy perspective, the more confident individuals feel about their ability to strengthen the relational ties they share with their partner and achieve a desired level of intimacy, the more likely they will engage in pro-relationship behaviors that facilitate the achievement of these goals, such as self-disclosure.

Although no studies have specifically examined the connection between relationship efficacy and self-disclosure, studies have focused on the interrelations among relationship efficacy and other positive relationship cognitions and behaviors important for intimacy development. For instance, Cui, Fincham, and Pasley ([13]) drew on data from 358 undergraduate students in romantic relationships and found low relationship efficacy was associated with higher relationship conflict seven weeks later, which, in turn, was related to lower relationship quality. Relationship efficacy was also associated with higher levels of self-reported relationship investment, commitment, and satisfaction and lower levels of relationship conflict in married, engaged, cohabiting, and dating undergraduate students (Riggo et al., [35]), and newlywed's confidence in their decision to get married, a variable likely functioning as a proxy for more general relationship efficacy beliefs, was linked with spending more time together two years into the marriage (Johnson & Anderson, [23]).

In contrast to studies that highlighted the predictive ability of relationship efficacy on interactive processes within a partnership, Johnson and Anderson ([24]) analyzed longitudinal data from 1,640 continuously partnered couples and found constructive conflict behaviors predicted higher levels of self- and partner-reported relationship efficacy. Although not directly comparable to relationship efficacy, relationship confidence (certainty one's relationship will thrive into the future and confidence in one's ability to navigate conflicts) was also associated with lower levels of self-reported and observed negative marital interactions in newlywed couples (Whitton et al., [48]). Taken together, these studies suggest relationship efficacy is linked to constructive communication patterns and positive relationship cognitions, which are both strong contextual factors that facilitate self-disclosure in intimate unions (Stanley, Markman, & Whitton, [41]). Individuals with high relationship efficacy may be open with their partners and feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and feelings because they believe they can attain desired intimacy outcomes.

The present study

Grounded in the intimacy process model (Reis & Shaver, [34]), the purpose of the present study is to examine the contributions of traditional genderrole attitudes (e.g., "A child under the age of 6 will suffer from having a working mother") and relationship efficacy (e.g., "If I set goals in my partnership I can reach them") on future self-disclosure (e.g., "How often do you share your secrets and private feelings with your partner?") in an intimate relationship (see Figure 1). Regression analyses are used to investigate these associations, and relationship satisfaction, relationshiplength, raising children, women's employment status, sex, and prior levels of self-disclosure were included as control variables. We account for participants' relationship satisfaction because it is a strong contributor to self-disclosure (Laurenceau et al., [26]) and relationship efficacy (Riggo et al., [35]). Relationship length is important because the participants in the present study belong to three different age cohorts (adolescents, young adults, and those nearing midlife), implying great diversity in relationship duration. Although partners make numerous disclosures in early stages of their relationships (Rubin et al., [36]), the frequency of emotional sharing might decline in longer-term unions once partners become familiar with one another and communication patterns stabilize (Bradbury & Karney, [ 8]). In terms of raising children, couples with children report lower marital satisfaction compared to their childless peers and the effect becomes more pronounced as the number of children increases (Twenge, Campbell, & Foster, [44]), which may have implications for self-disclosure. Women's employment status was also included as a control so we could compute an interaction term with traditional gender role attitudes to represent gender ideology and work behavior incongruence.

Graph: Figure 1. Hypothesized positioning of traditional gender role attitudes, relationship efficacy, and self-disclosure in the intimacy process model adapted from Reis and Shaver ([34]).

Given the topic under examination and prior work reviewed on gender role attitudes and intimate relations, participant sex is quite an important variable. Studies suggest there may be mean level differences in individuals' scores on self-disclosure, traditional gender role attitudes, and relationship efficacy for men and women. Prior research found women tend to self-disclose more often than men (Dindia & Allen, [14]) and have more egalitarian gender ideologies than men (Brewster & Padavic, [ 9]). Although we could not locate any studies that explicitly examined gender differences in relationship efficacy, women may score higher on this construct because showing competence in relationship-oriented tasks indicates a successful performance of femininity (West & Zimmerman, [47]). In light of this, we test for mean level differences in male and female scores on the three variables of interest. Likewise, it is possible that associations between self-disclosure and gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy may differ by sex. Traditional norms of femininity suggest women view emotional sharing as more rewarding and influential in establishing relationship intimacy than men (Collins & Miller, [11]). As such, self-disclosure might be more central to women's perceived roles as partners and therefore demonstrate stronger associations with other facets of their identities (i.e., gender role and relationship efficacy attitudes) compared to men. We therefore also test the potential moderating effect of participant sex in our regression analysis.

This study makes at least three key contributions to the literature on intimacy in romantic relationships. First, this study advances knowledge of the intimacy process model by focusing on the understudied intrapersonal component of this theory. Second, much of the prior research on gender roleattitudes or relationship efficacy and pro-relationship behaviors used convenience samples of university students who received course credit for participation (e.g., Neff & Suizzo, [31]; Riggo et al., [35]). This study draws upon longitudinal data from a representative sample of individuals from a variety of age cohorts, strengthening the generalizability of the findings. Finally, because the literature on gender role attitudes and self-disclosure is contested and no studies to date have examined associations between relationship efficacy and self-disclosure, exploring the unique contribution of each variable presents a novel addition to the literature.

Method

Procedures

We analyzed data from Wave 1 (collected in 2008) and Wave 2 (2009) of the German Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam), a longitudinal study expected to culminate in 2022 that explores personal and relational experiences across key domains of family life, including intimate unions, parenthood, parent-child relationships, and intergenerational ties (Huinink et al., [22]). Grounded in a life course perspective, pairfam focuses on the experiences of individuals from three birth cohorts: adolescents 15 to 17 years old at baseline (born 1991–1993), young adults 25 to 27 years old at baseline (born 1981–1983), and adults approaching midlife 35 to 37 years old at baseline (born 1971–1973). Researchers recruited and interviewed 12,402 participants in Wave 1 through stratified random sampling of over 42,000 addresses in various East and West German municipalities, with a 36.9% response rate (Brüderl et al., [10]). Researchers also recruited participants' family members into the study (i.e., partners, parents, step-parents, and children) to gather data about couple and intergenerational relationships, although the present study analyzes data from the focal participants only. Participants are assessed annually with one-hour computer-assisted personal interviews and gifted a small stipend for their time. Pairfam's concept paper (Huinink et al., [22]), website (http://www.pairfam.de/en/study.html), and most recent field report (Brüderl et al., [10]) contain additional information about this ongoing study.

Sample

The sample of 12,402 focal participants was filtered to only include those individuals who reported being in a heterosexual intimate union in Waves 1 and 2, which resulted in a subsample of 5,042 participants. There were more female (57.9%) than male (42.1%) participants in the study, and the average age of participants was 29.07 years old (SD = 7.53). Nearly half (46.7%) of the participants were in the midlife cohort (age: M = 36.18 years, SD = .89), over a third (35.6%) were in the young adult cohort (age: M = 26.15 years, SD = .88), and 17.7% were in the adolescent cohort (age: M = 16.23 years, SD = .87). Participants had been with their partners for 7.12 years on average, but there was wide variability in relationship length (SD = 6.12). Most (77.6%) participants reported their ethnicity as German native with no migration background. In terms of relationship status, 47.5% were married, 30.2% were in a non-cohabiting intimate relationship, and 18.4% were cohabiting. Half (50.2%) of the participants were raising one or more children at the time of interview. Most participants had earned either a high school diploma (27.7%) or a four-year university degree (26.6%). The median monthly household income was €2,500 (M = €2,699, SD = €1,356), which was marginally higher than the prior year's median monthly household income in Germany (€2,391; OECD, [32]).

Measures

Table 1 contains descriptive statistics for all study variables.

Table 1. Correlations and descriptive statistics for participant reports of self-disclosure, traditional gender role attitudes, relationship efficacy, and control variables (N = 5,042).

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
W1 Self-Disclosure

a

W2 Self-Disclosure .55**
Traditional GRA

b

–.04

–.03

Rel Efficacy

c

.32** .26** –.03
Rel Length

d

−.12** −.15** .02 –.06**
Rel Satisfaction

e

.27** .23** −.00 .28** −.05*
Number of Children

f

−.12** –.14** .09** –.08** .62** –.06**
Female

g

.12** .14** –.12** .05** .08** –.05* .12**
Men's Rep of FPE

h

−.13** –.14** –.11** –.04 .26** –.08** .05

Φ
Women's Emp Stat

h

–.04

–.04

–.16** –.01 .23** –.04

–.01 Φ Φ
M 3.89 3.89 2.39 3.76 7.12 8.28 .92 1.58 .62 .54
SD .76 .78 .84 .76 6.12 2.14 1.09 .49 .49 .50
Range 1–5 1–5 1–5 1–5 0–20+ 0–10 0–10 1–2 0–1 0–1
% Missing 0.60 13.30 0.00 1.10 0.60 0.90 0.10 0.00 60.80 42.70

  • 7 Note: W1 = Wave 1. W2 = Wave 2. GRA = Gender role attitude. Rel = Relationship. Men's Rep of FPE = Men's report of female partners' employment status. Emp Stat = Employment status. aSelf-disclosure: 1 = never, 5 = always. bTraditional gender role attitude: 1 = disagree completely, 5 = agree completely. cRelationship efficacy: 1 = not at all, 5 = absolutely. dRelationship length reported in years. eRelationshipsatisfaction: 0 = very dissatisfied, 10 = very satisfied. fNumber of children refers to number of children living with participant. gSex: 1 = male, 2 = female. hWomen's employment status: 0 = unemployed, 1 = employed. Φ = Could not be computed because variable 9 contains men only and variable 10 contains women only (% missing higher for these variables for the same reason).
  • 8 p < .05 *p < .01 **p < .001 (two-tailed).

Self-disclosure

The mean of two items adapted from Furman and Buhrmester ([18]) Network of Relationships Inventory measured one's level of self-disclosure to a partner: "How often do you tell your partner what you're thinking?" and "How often do you share your secrets and private feelings with your partner?" Responses ranged from 1 = never to 5 = always. The two items were moderately correlated at Wave 1 (r = .46) and Wave 2 (r = .56).

Traditional gender role attitudes

Traditional gender role ideologies were assessed within a broader scale of attitudes on family and role comprehension, with two items developed by pairfam researchers and one adapted from Hill and Arránz Becker ([20]): "A child aged under 6 will suffer from having a working mother," "Men should participate in housework to the same extent as women" (reverse coded), and "Women should be more concerned about their family than about their career." Responses ranged from 1 = disagree completely to 5 = agree completely. Mean scores were computed, and Cronbach's alpha for the three items was α = .51.

Relationship efficacy

The mean of two items adapted from self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, [37]) and the mastery component of the stress process model (Pearlin, Lieberman, Menaghan, & Mullan, [33]) assessed participants' relationship efficacy. The items were: "I can meet the needs of my partner very well" and "If I set goals in my partnership I can reach them." Responses ranged from 1 = not at all to 5 = absolutely. The two items were moderately correlated (r = .31).

Control variables

Participants' relationship satisfaction, relationship length, number of children, women's employment status, sex, and baseline self-disclosure were included as control variables. Relationship satisfaction was assessed with one item from the Relationship Assessment Scale (Hendrick, Dicke, & Hendrick, [19]): "All in all, how satisfied are you with your relationship?" Responses ranged from 0 = very dissatisfied to 10 = very satisfied. Participants reported the start date of their relationship, and relationship length was computed in years. Participants also specified the number of children in their household. For women's employment status, women reported on their own paid work hours and men reported on their female partners' paid work hours, and these responses were dichotomized into 0 = unemployed and 1 = employed. Finally, participant sex was coded as 1 = male and 2 = female.

Missing data

Missing data was low in this sample and was handled by excluding these values from the analysis. The percentages of missing data for each variable can be found in Table 1.

Analytic plan

We first computed descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations among all study variables. Independent samples t-tests were computed to test for mean differences between males and females in reported self-disclosure, traditional gender role attitudes, and relationship efficacy. Finally, the predictive ability of traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy on self-disclosure was examined through an ordinary least squares regression analysis (Aiken & West, [ 1]). We tested whether participant sex moderated associations between gender role attitudes and relationshipefficacy with self-disclosure, as well as whether women's employment status moderated associations between gender role attitudes and self-disclosure, by computing interaction terms and including them in the regression models.

Results

Correlations

Bivariate correlations and descriptive statistics for the study variables are displayed in Table 1. All correlations were statistically significant except among traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy, relationship length, and relationship satisfaction; between relationship efficacy and women's work; and between number of children and women's work. More frequent self-disclosures were associated with less traditional gender roleattitudes and a greater sense of relationship efficacy. Although the associations between self-disclosure and relationship efficacy was small, it was stronger than the "trivial" associations between self-disclosure and traditional gender role ideologies. Aside from prior self-disclosure, relationshipefficacy demonstrated the strongest association with relationship satisfaction, followed closely by Wave 2 self-disclosure. The association between traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy was quite small and non-significant, indicating the two predictor variables are distinct attitudinal constructs. On average, participants self-disclosed quite regularly to their partner (Wave 1: M = 3.89, SD = .76; Wave 2: M = 3.89, SD = .78), had gender role attitudes that were slightly more egalitarian than traditional (M = 2.39, SD = .84), and were confident in their ability to meet partner needs and realize relationship goals (M = 3.76, SD = .76).

Independent samples t-tests

There were statistically significant differences between male and female mean scores on self-disclosure, traditional gender role attitudes, and relationship efficacy (see Table 2), although these differences were small in magnitude (Wave 1 self-disclosure: d = –.24; Wave 2 self-disclosure: d = –.29; traditional gender role attitudes: d = .23; relationship efficacy: d = –.10). Females were more likely to self-disclose (Wave 1: M = 3.96, SD = .75; Wave 2: M = 3.98, SD = .76), held less traditional gender role attitudes (M = 2.31, SD = .83), and had a higher sense of relationshipefficacy (M = 3.79, SD = .76) than males (Wave 1 self-disclosure: M = 3.78, SD = .77; Wave 2 self-disclosure: M = 3.76, SD = .78; traditional genderrole attitudes: M = 2.50, SD = .85; relationship efficacy: M = 3.72, SD = .75).

Table 2. Summary of independent samples t-tests for mean differences between male and female scores on self-disclosure, traditional gender roleattitudes, and relationship efficacy.

Male Female
Variable N M(SD) N M(SD) t(df)
W1 Self-Disclosure

a

2,111 3.78 (.77) 2,902 3.96 (.75) −8.20 (4489)*

d

W2 Self-Disclosure 1,801 3.76 (.78) 2,571 3.98 (.76) –9.13 (3831)*

d

Traditional GRA

b

2,124 2.50 (.85) 2,918 2.31 (.83) 8.33 (5040)*
Rel Efficacy

c

2,107 3.72 (.75) 2,882 3.79 (.76) −3.59 (4987)*

  • 9 Note: W1 = Wave 1. W2 = Wave 2. GRA = Gender role attitude. Rel = Relationship. aSelf-disclosure: 1 = never, 5 = always. bTraditional gender role attitude: 1 = disagree completely, 5 = agree completely. cRelationship efficacy: 1 = not at all, 5 = absolutely. dDegrees of freedom adjusted because homogeneity of variance assumption was violated.
  • 10 *p < .001 (two-tailed).

Regression analysis

The regression results examining the contributions of traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy on self-disclosure are presented in Table 3. We first computed this analysis with interactions between gender role attitudes and men's reports of their female partners' employment, as well as gender role attitudes and women's self-reported employment, to determine whether women's employment moderated the association between gender ideologies and self-disclosure. The interactions were not significant and therefore excluded from the final regression analysis. We then computed interactions between sex and gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy to determine whether the strength of the associations between these independent variables and self-disclosure differed for males and females. These interactions were not significant either, so we present more interpretable results omitting the interaction terms but retained participant sex as a control variable. Finally, we analyzed these data in a hierarchical manner to determine the additive explanatory power (above the control variables) of including gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy to predict self-disclosure.

Table 3. Summary of ordinary least squares regression analysis for wave 1 variables predicting wave 2 self-disclosure (N = 5,042).

Model 1 (Controls) Model 2 (Traditional GRA) Model 3 (Rel Efficacy)
Variable B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β
Rel Length −0.01 0.00 −.05* −0.01 0.00 −.05* −0.01 0.00 −.05*
Rel Satisfaction 0.04 0.01 .10** 0.04 0.01 .09** 0.03 0.01 .08**
# of Children −0.04 0.01 −.06** −0.04 0.01 −.06* −0.04 0.01 −.05*
Female 0.14 0.02 .09** 0.14 0.02 .09** 0.14 0.02 .09**
Self-Disclosure 0.52 0.01 .51** 0.52 0.01 .51** 0.50 0.01 .49**
Traditional GRA 0.00 0.01 .00 0.00 0.01 .00
Rel Efficacy 0.07 0.01 .07**
Adjusted R

2

.33 .33 .34
F(df) 426.28 (5)** 355.15 (6)** 309.33 (7)**

  • 11 Note: Rel = Relationship. GRA = Gender role attitude.
  • 12 *p < .01 **p < .001 (two-tailed).

All control variables were associated with self-disclosure in Model 1: More frequent self-disclosure was associated with being in a newer, more satisfying relationship, having fewer children, being female, and having higher levels of self-disclosure in the past. All associations, while statistically significant, were small in magnitude and accounted for 33% of the variance in self-disclosure scores. We next added traditional gender role attitudes to the regression analysis in Model 2. Although gender role ideologies and self-disclosure were linked in the correlation analysis, the association was no longer significant in the regression analysis (β = .00, p = .940) and the inclusion of this variable did not account for any additional variance in self-disclosure scores (R2 = .33). Relationship efficacy was added in Model 3 and it predicted self-disclosure (β = .07, p < .001): a one standard deviation unit increase in participants' relationship efficacy score was associated with a.07 standard deviation unit increase in participants' self-disclosure, accounting for the control variables and traditional gender role attitudes. Relationship efficacy is a stronger predictor of self-disclosurecompared to traditional gender role attitudes, and 34% of the variance in participants' self-disclosure scores was explained following the addition of relationship efficacy into the model.

Discussion

Guided by concepts from the intimacy process model (Reis & Shaver, [34]), the present study investigated how traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy were associated with self-disclosure in intimate relationships. As anticipated, the first finding was that females reported higher mean scores on self-disclosure and relationship efficacy compared to males, but lower scores on traditional gender role attitudes. It is important to note, however, that the differences in scores were small. According to a gender constructionist perspective, cultural discourse on appropriate genderrelations consistently structure the private realm of intimate unions, and individuals reaffirm their gendered identities through how they interact in their partnership and construct their intimate experience (Ferree, [17]; Mannino & Deutsch, [27]). Female partners may abide by normative standards of femininity that position women as relationship-oriented by demonstrating heightened levels of emotional expressiveness and assuming the roles of competent relational managers (Mannino & Deutsch, [27]). These daily performances of femininity may manifest in higher levels of self-disclosure and relationship efficacy, which is consistent with empirical evidence that women self-disclosed more than men (Dindia & Allen, [14]) and theoretical assumptions on how social constructions of womanhood are practiced and reproduced in the private sphere (West & Zimmerman, [47]). In contrast, male partners may engage in less emotional sharing and display less confidence in realizing relationship goals to assert masculine traits of independence and emotional distance. In line with Brewster and Padavic's ([ 9]) findings, females in the present study also had less traditional genderrole ideologies compared to males. Female partners may reap more benefits in egalitarian gender role arrangements because it promotes the sharing of domestic and relational labour that has been traditionally assigned to women alone and normalizes women's involvement in realms beyond the home.

The next major contribution of this study was to determine how different attitudinal variables were associated with self-disclosure. Relationshipefficacy proved to be a stronger predictor of self-disclosure in an intimate union than traditional gender role attitudes. In fact, there were no statistically significant associations between traditional gender ideologies and self-disclosure in the regression analysis. These results represent a departure from prior literature that demonstrated moderate associations between gender role attitudes and emotional sharing (e.g., Marshall, [28]; Taniguchi & Kaufman, [42]). One reason for this finding might involve the way gender role attitudes were measured in the pairfam study. The genderrole ideology scale contained only three items: one on housework roles, one on the implications of women's employment for children, and one on a general evaluation of women's roles in the family versus paid employment. Yet, some scholars argue gender role attitudes are a multifaceted construct that can be directed toward a variety of different role domains, including marital, caregiving, and housework roles in the private sphere and employment, educational, and political roles in the public sphere (Beere, King, Beere, & King, [ 5]; Constantin & Voicu, [12]). Gender role beliefs about some of these other domains may have demonstrated associations with self-disclosure, particularly marital roles that define how couples relate to each other in their union. For instance, Taniguchi and Kaufman's ([42]) operationalization of gender role attitudes focused on career, housework, and family roles, and Rubin and colleagues ([36]) examined gender ideologies in etiquette, employment, family roles, and marital relations. Perhaps the robust measurement helped unearth the links between gender role attitudes and self-disclosure in these studies, but notable methodological strengths in the present study (e.g., drawing on a large, representative sample, for example) provide some indication that the results are not merely reducible to measurement error. Indeed, prior studies examining gender role ideologies and self-disclosure drew on data from comparatively smaller samples of university students (Marshall, [28]; Neff & Suizzo, [31]; Rubin et al., [36]).

Another explanation for the pattern of findings observed in this study might be embedded in the contextual underpinnings of the attitudinal constructs, as behaviors are influenced by a combination of cognitive factors and contextual forces (Bandura, [ 3]). Gender role attitudes are conceptualized as broad beliefs about how men and women are or should be in society regarding how they relate to one another and assume certain responsibilities (Bergh, [ 6]; Constantin & Voicu, [12]). In other words, these attitudes are grounded in normative beliefs and social ideologies directed toward global ideas surrounding appropriate gender relations. In contrast, relationship efficacy is conceptualized as beliefs in one's own ability to fulfill a partner's needs and achieve desired relationship outcomes (Johnson & Anderson, [24]); efficacy beliefs are specifically directed toward individuals' roles in their present intimate unions. Given that pairfam's gender ideology items inquired about what men and women should do in general (Hill & Arránz Becker, [20]) and not how gender relations should be practiced in one's current relationship, gender role attitudes may be unrelated to self-disclosurebecause they are less proximal to the specific relationship context in which these affective actions are enacted. Self-disclosure might be more dependent on relationship efficacy because these competence beliefs are directed toward the same relational context in which emotional sharing occurs.

These findings can also be interpreted in light of a large body of literature that specifies what types of attitudes are most likely to translate into behavior. Ajzen and Fishbein ([ 2]) argued that vested interest, direct experience, and behavioral intentions are key factors that moderate the attitude-behavior connection. According to this research, an attitude will have a stronger impact on behavior when an individual attributes more personal significance to the attitude, has more direct experience with the subject of the attitude, and has stronger intentions to follow through with a behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, [ 2]). Applying these criteria to relationship efficacy, an individual likely has a strong interest in meeting a partner's needs and achieving relationshipgoals because doing so will strengthen and sustain relational ties. Given that relationship efficacy beliefs are focused on one's current partner and intimate union, an individual certainly has direct involvement with that partner in their shared relational context. Relationship efficacy also has the intention for action embedded within it because it involves attitudes about performing behaviors that will bolster relationship quality and stability. In terms of gender role attitudes, although one may have a vested interest in these gendered beliefs, the direct experience criterion is weakened given the social and ideological focus of the attitude. Moreover, the intention for action criterion is missing with gender ideologies because they only focus on how men and women should be, not on what actions must be enacted to achieve desired patterns of gender relations. Ultimately, the interaction among relationship significance, experience with one's partner, and intention for pro-relationship action within relationship efficacy attitudes might produce a stronger link to intimacy enhancing behaviors.

Overall, what implications do these findings have for the intimacy process model? An important feature of this model is the interpersonal nature of how intimacy develops from self-disclosures and affective responses from both partners (Laurenceau et al., [26]). An equally important component of the model is the intrapersonal process of how one's approach and avoidance motivations drive self-disclosure to begin with, but these motivations vary in how strongly they are guided by personal- or relational-oriented goals (Reis & Shaver, [34]). For instance, although individual beliefs about the way gender relations should be in society are partially influenced by the nature of one's sociocultural context, they are mostly determined by one's personal value set (Bergh, [ 6]). Ideological attitudes such as gender role beliefs can, therefore, be viewed as having an intrapersonal motivating force. In contrast, relationship efficacy can be conceptualized as more interpersonally motivated because these beliefs are directed towards supporting an intimate partner and strengthening the shared union. Given that self-disclosing is an inherently relational process (Reis & Shaver, [34]), interpersonal attitudes might connect closer to this intimacy enhancing behavior based on their shared underlying motivational system compared to intrapersonal attitudes.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. First, given that pairfam contains longitudinal data at yearly intervals, it is possible that the time span between waves of measurement is too long to observe the attitudinal motivations within the intimacy process model. The relatively small magnitude of effects within our regression analysis further supports this point. Findings from the present study will need to be replicated within daily diary approaches, which will be able to observe the links between intrapersonal factors and self-disclosure as they unfold in daily life. Second, because data were analyzed from an omnibus nationally representative study that assessed a wide range of family and couple relationship processes, the measures of self-disclosure, gender role attitudes, and relationship efficacy were condensed versions of larger scales. Examination of these constructs with more robust measures presents an exciting opportunity for future research. Third, the oldest cohort in the present study consisted of individuals approaching midlife (35 to 37 years old at baseline). Yet, the frequency of partners' self-disclosures tends to plateau in longer-term unions (Bradbury & Karney, [ 8]), and individuals' gender role and relationship efficacy attitudes may similarly stabilize with age. As such, future research could examine whether associations between these constructs are similar or different in older adult populations. Finally, this study only focused on heterosexual individuals, so the results cannot be generalized to individuals in same-sex partnerships. Given that recent evidence suggests same-sex and heterosexual couples might use different strategies for maintaining intimacy in their relationships (Umberson, Thomeer, & Lodge, [45]), it would be valuable to explore the interrelations among gender role attitudes, relationship efficacy, and self-disclosure in same-sex relationships.

Conclusion

This study examined associations between traditional gender role attitudes and relationship efficacy with how often one self-discloses to an intimatepartner. The findings suggest relationship efficacy is a stronger predictor of future self-disclosure in intimate relationships compared to traditional gender role attitudes, which showed no association with self-disclosure. Individuals hold a variety of personal attitudes that might steer them toward or away from self-disclosure within their partnerships. Efforts to enhance feelings of confidence to meet a partner's needs and achieve desired relationship outcomes may be one important way partners can strengthen their propensities for emotional sharing and cultivate long lasting intimacy.

DMU Timestamp: February 03, 2020 23:30





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