Chapter 1 Introduction. "Action Research in Mathematics: Providing Metacognitive Support (As a Heutagogical Technique) to Grade 3 Students"
Author: Zoriana Myburgh
University of Southampton, 2021
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
ACTION RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS:
PROVIDING METACOGNITIVE SUPPORT (AS A HEUTAGOGICAL TECHNIQUE) TO GRADE 3 STUDENTS
by Zoriana Myburgh
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of MSc Education
Declaration of Authorship
I confirm that the material contained in this dissertation is all my own work and where the work of others has been drawn upon, it has been properly acknowledged according to appropriate academic conventions. No portion of this work has been submitted or is currently being submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or institute of learning.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Dr Marta Cristina Azaola who always gave me constructive feedback and support throughout the project.
In addition, I would like to say a huge thank you to my husband for cheering me up whenever I needed it and for not letting me give up.
Finally, I appreciate all the students and their parents who agreed to take part in this study and for sharing their thoughts with me. Thank you.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….iii
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS………………………………………………………………………………….vii
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………viii
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.1 Metacognition through the lens of constructivism, individualism, and postmodernism………………………..5
2.2 Metacognition through self-determination, self-regulation, and self-efficacy………………………………………6
2.3 Metacognition as a Habit of Mind……………………………………………………………………………………………………….8
2.4 Can metacognition be taught?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..10
2.5 How to measure metacognition?……………………………………………………………………………………………………….12
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………14
3.1 Research design…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………14
3.2 Setting and participants…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15
3.3 Data collection………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17
3.4 Data analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….19
3.5 Ethics and risk assessment procedures………………………………………………………………………………………………21
3.6 Validating findings…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….21
4. FINDINGS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..22
4.1 Overview of the chapter…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
4.2 Core category: Commitment……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..23
4.2.1 Setting goals……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….24
4.2.2 Self-questioning………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….24
4.2.3 Self-monitoring…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..25
4.2.4 Responding to feedback………………………………………………………………………………………………………………25
4.3 Core category: Value…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………26
4.3.1 Making connections to real life and the future……………………………………………………………………………27
4.3.2 Giving advice to other students…………………………………………………………………………………………………..27
4.3.3 Emotional aspect after solving problems…………………………………………………………………………………….28
4.4 Core category: Capacity……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………28
4.4.1 Connecting metacognition to math……………………………………………………………………………………………..29
4.4.2 Applying different strategies when solving problems………………………………………………………………….30
4.4.3 Asking for help when needed………………………………………………………………………………………………………31
4.4.4 Taking notes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….31
4.4.5 Improvement strategies……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32
5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………………….34
5.1 Overview of key findings……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………34
5.2 Research outcomes in the framework of existing literature……………………………………………………………….34
5.3 Limitations of research………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38
5.4 Implications for further research……………………………………………………………………………………………………….38
5.5 Practical recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….39
5.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………40
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….43
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………50
Appendix I: Consent Form (Parents)……………………………………………………………………………………………………….50
Appendix II: Consent Form (Students)…………………………………………………………………………………………………….51
Appendix III: Interview Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..52
Appendix IV: Final Assessment……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….53
Appendix V: Lesson Plan with Metacognitive Elements…………………………………………………………………………..56
Appendix VI: Metacognition Diary (MD) – Value……………………………………………………………………………………62
Appendix VII: Metacognition Diary (MD) – Capacity……………………………………………………………………………..64
Appendix VIII: Metacognition Diary (MD) – Commitment………………………………………………………………………66
Appendix IX: Coding Legend…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..69
Appendix X: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Setting goals…………………………………………………..71
Appendix XI: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Self-questioning…………………………………………….72
Appendix XII: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Self-monitoring……………………………………………74
Appendix XIII: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Responding to feedback……………………………..76
Appendix XIV: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Connecting metacognition to math……………..77
Appendix XV: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Applying different strategies when solving
problems………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….79
Appendix XVI: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Asking for help when needed………………………81
Appendix XVII: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Taking notes………………………………………………82
Appendix XVIII: Qualitative Analysis of Abstract Concepts – Improvement strategies……………………………84
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Core Category Commitment – Overall Picture during 3 Phases………………………………………….23
Table 2: Core Category Capacity – Overall Picture during 3 Phases…………………………………………………29
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
EQ = Essential Question
GC = Google Classroom
HoM = Habit of Mind
MD = Metacognition Diary
MK = Metacognitive Knowledge
ME = Metacognitive Experience
MS = Metacognitive Skills
PT = Performance Task
P = Phase
S = Student
S2-P1 = Student 2 – Phase 1
SLO = Schoolwide Learner Outcomes
ABSTRACT
Self-determination, as one of the 21st-century skills, prepares students for our constantly changing world. Can metacognition help students become self-determined and is it worth starting to introduce metacognitive elements at an elementary school? Based on the current literature from teachers’ and administrators’ points of view, metacognition positively influences students’ performance and wellbeing. Therefore, there is a need to continue researching the effects of metacognition at a young age but from students’ perspectives.
The purpose of this research is to enhance grade 3 students’ metacognitive abilities to help them manage their learning. The data was collected using the students’ personal thoughts and emotions during semi-structured interviews and the researcher’s observation notes in order to summarise whether or not metacognitive interventions were helping students become self-determined. A lack of qualitative action research in existing literature highlighted the need for this research design.
It has been found that metacognition as a heutagogical technique can be used to improve students’ self-determination in an elementary school. Students mostly showed improvement in the Commitment category: goal-setting, self-questioning and self-monitoring. Less than half of the students showed the development of metacognitive skills in the Capacity category. Most of them already had some skills before the experiment started (e.g., strategies for solving problems, improvement strategies, and asking for help when needed). The Value category represented how students developed their metacognitive experience and supported the finding of the previous categories. Considering the significance of metacognitive development, teachers should constantly strengthen the metacognitive abilities of their students.
1. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Due to constant and rapid changes in our society, the importance of lifelong learning is also increasing. People need to constantly evaluate their ideas and experience. This ceaseless “transformation of information, the creation, construction and renewal of knowledge, is at the heart of reflexivity” (Dyke, 2009, p. 295). Traditional learning models might not be satisfactory for current learners nowadays who look for greater independence and integration (McLoughlin and Lee, 2008). Taking into account COVID-19 pandemic restrictions all over the world and the availability of online learning resources, it’s essential for students to learn how to manage their learning. Furthermore, some of the jobs that we have now might be replaced by the time our primary students will finish school. In that case, it is necessary to teach 21st-century skills, namely critical thinking, self-determination, and socialization, that will help students adapt to these new requirements (Irgatoglu and Pakkan, 2020).
Being an elementary school teacher, I often noticed that when students are given a word problem to solve, they will say, “I do not know, teacher” or “Teacher, what to do here?”, or will patiently wait until the teacher scaffolds it, or someone else finds the answer. Can coaching students on metacognition as one of the heutagogical techniques solve this issue? The main goal of developing students’ metacognition is to make them autonomous and self-determined learners (Thomas, 2003). Self-determined learners set their own goals and learning paths, monitor timing, and reflect on their final outcomes.
Based on Self-determination Theory, students have three primary needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Autonomy means the freedom of choice and the wish to control the learning process. Competence refers to having the confidence and capabilities to complete a task. Relatedness is about working with others and feeling connected (Marshik, Ashton and Algina, 2017).
Definition of Terms
This paper will be based on three main terms: heutagogy, self-determination, and metacognition.
First, it is important to differentiate between self-determination, self-regulation, and self-efficacy as these three terms will appear in this paper.
- Self-determination refers to individual motivation that is influenced by internal impetuses (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
- Self-regulation is defined as self-management, the ability to control the thoughts and emotions that direct human’s behaviour (Panadero, 2017).
- Self-efficacy is one of the tools of self-regulation and means the beliefs people have in achieving a task successfully (Bandura, 1977).
Self-determined learning is also known as heutagogy, a concept introduced by Hase and Kenyon (2000) and refers to student-centred learning “where the individual student’s interests and motivations create a focus area for new learning” (Jones et al., 2019, p. 1172) and the teacher acts more like a mentor in a classroom. One of the main heutagogical principles is self-reflection (Blaschke, 2012) which is known as metacognition. Metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, “cognition about cognition” (Pritchard, 2013, p. 27) or “our ability to know what we know and what we don’t know” (Costa and Kallick, 2008, p. 24).
Metacognition is not only about planning and knowledge activation but also the intentional monitoring of students’ cognitive processes, reflection, time management, and self-evaluation (Bol et al., 2016) and determining new ways to proceed and learning from the experience (Edwards and Costa, 2012).
Metacognition is one of the 16 Habits of Mind (HoMs) developed by Costa and Kallick (2000) that are a collection of behaviours that can help students tackle different problems they encounter at school or in other settings. Students need more than just academic knowledge and skills in order to succeed. HoMs focus not only on how much students know but also on what they do when they do not know an answer (Costa and Kallick, 2008). Teachers can help them practice these behaviours by modelling them, immersing these habits in the school curriculum and culture, and constantly checking their growth (Edwards and Costa, 2012).
Problem Statement
Considering that learning is a lifelong process, it is logical to start teaching self-determination skills as soon as possible (Palmer & Wehmeyer, 2003). Moreover, it is recommended by some researchers to start teaching self-determination at a young age as it will become more difficult at later stages (Danneker & Bottge, 2009). Stein (2018, p. 4) underlines that “effective teaching and learning [should] take place early on so that students can be successful in secondary school and beyond”. For instance, elementary school students can be taught how to set goals, make decisions, assess, and reflect on one’s own work. Knox (2017) emphasises that students who developed metacognitive skills can organise, examine, and assess their thoughts. However, there is not much qualitative research that investigates the impact of metacognitive support on elementary students, particularly in the context of mathematics. Most of the studies focus on quantitative data based on students’ performance. Previous literature was more focused on the teachers’ perspectives disregarding the views of students.
Self-reflection tasks are often treated as some extra time-consuming work for students, especially during mathematics classes because students do not see any value in them (Kiles, Vishenchuk and Hohmeier, 2020). Metacognitive skills that lead to self-determination are not instinctive and might be challenging (Bouldin, 2017). Considering that self-determination plays an important role in students’ well-being (Martinek and Kipman, 2016), it is important to dedicate this study to research the effects of metacognition on learners’ self-determination at a young age from students’ vision.
Fifteen grade 3 students (9-10 years old, 8 girls and 7 boys) took part in this experiment at an elementary school in Cambodia. Data from the participants were collected as semi-structured interviews with students recorded via Google Meets and the researcher’s observation notes taken during math classes. During the research period, all schools in Cambodia were operating online because of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. The experiment lasted 9 weeks from April 29 to June 30, 2021.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is (a) to understand the necessity of a heutagogical framework from the perspectives of students during maths classes in an elementary school in Cambodia, and (b) to find out whether metacognition can help students become self-determined at a young age. Action research cycles will be used to examine self-determined learning in the context of mathematics at an elementary school. Action research can be conducted by teachers in their classrooms with the aim of refining pedagogy and student learning (Nasrollahi, 2015). Coding student perspectives and researcher’s notes will help understand the phenomenon of self-determination and the use of metacognitive elements, namely goal-setting, self-assessment, self-questioning, self-monitoring, responding to and reflecting on feedback, note-taking, problem-solving strategies, and improvement strategies, etc.
The aim of the study was supported by the following research questions:
Central Question: How can students’ needs be met using the heutagogical framework while teaching maths in an elementary school in Cambodia?
Subquestion 1: What tools and strategies should teachers use to implement the heutagogical framework?
Subquestion 2: How can metacognition as a heutagogical technique be used to improve students’ self-determination?
By answering these research questions and gaining insight from students, we can better understand the conceptions and misconceptions about the heutagogical framework in an elementary school. We will see whether metacognitive elements in a lesson plan encourage self-determination based on students’ responses and the researcher’s observation notes. With this undertaking, elementary teachers might be inspired to design better lesson plans.
Organization of the Study
The structure of the study is as follows. The literature review provides the context for current research, explains the importance of metacognition as a heutagogical technique in the learning process from teachers’ perspectives. It was considered whether metacognition can be taught and what techniques work best based on the current empirical data. The methodology chapter explains the rationale for research design and the methods chosen as the most appropriate for this study. Plus, it gives an insight into how data was collected and analysed. The findings chapter presents the themes developed during the analysis of the collected data. The research outcomes are compared with the existing literature in the discussion chapter. Based on the research findings, implications for further research are suggested and conclusions are made.
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