How People Learn (summary of chapters 1-3)
Below is a summary of the first three chapters from a very influential book in the field of educational psychology that, although published in 2000, remains an invaluable reference on the scientific foundations of learning, especially in schools: How People Learn
Chapter 1
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Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works. If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom" (pp. 14-15). This means that teachers must "draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that their students bring with them" (p. 19). Bransford, Brown and Cocking recommend that teachers must create "classroom tasks and conditions under which student thinking can be revealed" (p. 19).
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"To develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must (a) have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application" (p. 16). This means that teachers must "teach some subject matter in depth, providing many examples in which the same concept is at work and providing a firm foundation of factual knowledge" (p. 20). The authors recommend that "superficial coverage of more topics be replaced with in-depth coverage of fewer topics,” that teachers come to teaching having experienced in-depth inquiry in the disciplines they teach, and that assessments (including standardized tests) be used to test "deep understanding" rather than surface knowledge (p. 20).
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A metacognitive approach to instruction can help students learn to take control of their own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving them (p.18). The authors recommend that metacognitive skills be integrated across curricular disciplines and that teachers make their thinking visible to students so as to model strategic metacognitive engagement and awareness (p. 21).
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The authors emphasize that disciplinary knowledge – i.e., ways of constructing meaning, organizing ideas and thinking about content – must be taught.
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They also state that "schools and classrooms must be learner-centered" (p. 23). This means that teachers need to consider learner-specific needs – their unique social and cultural perspectives, background knowledge, and whether they believe in intelligence as something fixed (i.e., you have it or you don't) or malleable (i.e., can grow & change, especially as a result of persistence in the face of challenge).
Chapter 2
Experts and novices solve problems differently. In Chapter 2, Bransford, Brown & Cocking outline six critical differences among experts and learners:
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Experts notice features and meaningful patterns of information that novices do not notice. One dimension of acquiring greater expertise is the increased ability to segment the perceptual field (i.e., seeing, hearing, feeling) (p. 36). Instructional techniques that allow students to segment information, but also to recognize meaningful patterns in a given domain will help students become more expert.
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Experts organize their knowledge in a given domain around core concepts; beginners rarely do this. Beginners may categorize content on surface-level or even perceptual criteria instead of on ways to manipulate information, or conceptual themes that connect ideas. Instructional practice should help beginners to see deeper, thematic connections among concepts. Curricula that place too much emphasis on facts undermine students' ability to develop deep conceptual understanding of the connections among ideas in a subject area.
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Experts' knowledge cannot be reduced to a set of facts or propositions. Rather, experts understand applicability of knowledge and understand it as "conditionalized" on a set of circumstances (p. 31). In other words, experts understand how context, or the situation, matters. Instructional methods that decontextualize learning, require little understanding of when, why and how to apply knowledge undermine the development of this critical aspect of expertise.
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Experts are able to flexibly retrieve important aspects of their knowledge with little cognitive effort. When essential subprocesses become automatic, experts can therefore dedicate more cognitive "space" or "energy" to higher order aspects of problem solving in the domain. "An important aspect of learning is to become fluent at recognizing problem types in particular domains [...] so that appropriate solutions can be easily retrieved from memory. Instructional procedures that speed up pattern recognition are promising (p. 44).
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Though experts know their disciplines thoroughly, they may not be able to teach others effectively. Experts often forget what is hard and what is easy for novices. For this reason, it is essential for teachers to develop pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987) – knowledge about how to teach content to novices (p. 45).
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Experts have varying levels of flexibility in their approach to new situations. Routinized expertise is not the same as creative expertise. Being able to follow a fixed method is a kind of expertise – but adaptive expertise is generative and leads to innovation. Helping students to consider new or different ways to approach a problem can help them to develop flexible mindsets for problem solving.
Chapter 3
This chapter focuses on the magic of transfer – the ability to apply what you have learned in one situation to another, connected situation. Bransford, Brown and Cocking (p. 53) review "key characteristics of learning and transfer that have important implications for education":
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Initial learning is essential for transfer. Degree of mastery of the original subject is a significant predictor of transfer. Transfer is also affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding, rather than merely memorizing a set of facts or following a fixed set of procedures.
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Time on task is a major predictor of learning and transfer. However, learning is most effective when people engage in "deliberate practice" that includes active monitoring of one's learning experiences. Feedback that focuses on students' understanding of the task can also make learning time more effective.
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Motivation is a key determinant of transfer. It affects the amount of time people spend on the task, but also the value they consider the task to have. Learners are more likely to persist in the face of challenge if they are motivated to "learn" rather than "perform" (Dweck, 1989) (p. 61).
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Transfer is contextual and especially difficult if content/skills are learned in only one context, rather than across multiple contexts. "When a subject is taught in multiple contexts, and includes examples that demonstrate the wide application of what is being taught, people are more likely to abstract the relevant features of concepts and develop a flexible representation of knowledge" (p. 62).
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Transfer depends on the underlying conceptual similarity between or among problems. Metaphor, abstraction and analogical reasoning are ways of thinking that facilitate transfer from one context to another.
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Transfer is an active process. Manipulation of ideas, metacognitive awareness of strategic processing, and active scaffolding of conceptual transfer through discussion (among other strategies) support transfer of learned concepts.
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Transfer begins with background knowledge, which means that background knowledge must be engaged, explored, challenged and leveraged so that students can construct new (and accurate) understanding of concepts.
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Culture and identity affect transfer. If school and home environments are inconsistent, learning and transfer will be affected. Teachers should view cultural backgrounds as strengths on which to build rather than deficits.
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Problem based learning supports transfer.
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Great question! The text provides several insights that can be invaluable for teaching high school AP English Language and Composition. Let’s dive into one of the key ideas:
“[T]eachers must ‘draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that their students bring with them’” (p. 19).
In your classroom, you could start a new unit by first engaging students in a discussion or quick-write activity about what they already know or believe about the topic. For example, if you are about to start a unit on rhetorical analysis, ask students to share their thoughts on what makes a piece of writing persuasive. This can be in the form of a brainstorming session, where students can freely express their preconceptions before you guide them into the academic frameworks and models they’ll be studying.
By acknowledging and working with their preconceptions, you ensure that students are connected to the material on a personal level, which can facilitate deeper learning and understanding. This also allows you to identify and address any misconceptions right from the start, paving the way for more effective teaching and learning throughout the unit.
“The authors recommend that ‘superficial coverage of more topics be replaced with in-depth coverage of fewer topics’” (p. 20).
In terms of curriculum design for AP English, consider focusing on fewer key texts or authors but engaging in more profound, detailed analysis of these works. You could include activities like detailed rhetorical analysis essays or in-class debates focused on the themes and rhetorical strategies of the selected materials. This method reinforces deeper understanding and helps students organize their knowledge in meaningful ways.
Deep engagement with the material fosters better retention and allows students to transfer their learning to new contexts—a crucial skill for both the AP exam and their future academic endeavors.
As you revisit the text, how might you further incorporate students’ pre-existing knowledge and emphasize depth over breadth in your teaching strategies? What methods do you find effective for drawing out and working with pre-existing student understandings?
Reflecting on these aspects will help you better bridge the gap between theory and practice in your classroom. Keep exploring and refining your approach—you’re doing great work!
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This comment was deleted by Christopher Sloan at Jul 08 2024 1:18PM.
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This comment was deleted by Christopher Sloan at Jul 08 2024 1:18PM.
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Fantastic, you’ve selected a highly relevant concept for your AP English Language and Composition class. Let’s keep digging into how you can draw out and work with pre-existing student understandings, which is at the core of your original question.
From Chapter 1: “Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works… teachers must ‘draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that their students bring with them’” (pp. 14-15, 19).
Given your role, an effective method is through Socratic seminars. This allows students to voice their pre-existing understandings and debate them in a structured manner. Before diving into a new text or rhetorical concept, you could ask your students questions like:
- “What do you know about the author’s historical context?”
- “How do you think this context might influence the author’s writing?”
- “What are your predictions about the themes or rhetorical strategies used in this text based on the title or first paragraph?”
This not only makes their preconceptions visible but also allows you to gauge their initial thoughts, providing a clear starting point for deeper learning.
Engaging students’ preconceptions ensures that new information is integrated into their existing knowledge framework. This approach aligns with the book’s assertion that without engaging initial understandings, “they may fail to grasp the new concepts” or revert to old ways of thinking (pp. 14-15).
From Chapter 3: “Transfer begins with background knowledge, which means that background knowledge must be engaged, explored, challenged, and leveraged” (p. 62).
To facilitate transfer, you can use comparative analysis. When introducing a new text, have students compare it to a previous text they’ve studied. This way, they can draw on their background knowledge to make sense of new material. For instance, you might ask:
- “How does the rhetorical strategy in ‘Text A’ compare with the one used in ‘Text B’?”
- “What similar themes can you identify, and how are they addressed differently?”
Such comparisons help students see patterns and deepen their understanding, fostering an ability to apply learned concepts across different contexts.
As you revisit the concepts from the text, consider how you might adapt your instructional methods to better draw out pre-existing understandings. Ask yourself, “What are effective ways to reveal the depth and complexity of my students’ prior knowledge?”
Would incorporating more discussion-based activities, like Socratic seminars or comparative analyses, help in bringing those preconceptions to the forefront? Reflect on your classroom experiences and the specific needs of your students to decide on the best strategies.
Revisit these chapters from “How People Learn” and think about additional ways to implement these strategies. Could there be even more questions or activities to engage students’ preconceptions? How might you tailor these approaches to fit the unique dynamics of your AP English classroom?
By continuously exploring these connections and integrating these principles into your teaching, you’ll be able to draw out and build on your students’ pre-existing understandings effectively. Keep experimenting, reflecting, and adapting—your students will greatly benefit from your thoughtful approach to their learning journey!
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Fantastic, you’ve selected a highly relevant concept for your AP English Language and Composition class. Let’s keep digging into how you can draw out and work with pre-existing student understandings, which is at the core of your original question about applying ideas to a book like “Educated” by Tara Westover.
From Chapter 1 of “How People Learn”: “Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works… teachers must ‘draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that their students bring with them’” (pp. 14-15, 19).
Given the rich narrative and the complex themes present in “Educated,” you should start by tapping into the students’ existing knowledge about key themes such as education, family, and self-discovery. For instance, before beginning the book, engage your students in a discussion or a reflective free-write with questions such as:
- “What preconceptions do you have about formal education and its value?”
- “How has your family influenced your perspective on education?”
- “What personal obstacles do you think can impact one’s educational journey?”
This approach anchors new learning in familiar territory, allowing students to connect personally with Tara Westover’s experiences and insights in “Educated.”
By focusing on students’ preconceptions, you ensure that their initial understanding is actively engaged. As noted in “How People Learn,” failing to connect new concepts with existing knowledge can result in superficial learning that doesn’t translate beyond the classroom. In the context of “Educated,” engaging pre-existing understandings helps students relate to Westover’s narrative deeply and thoughtfully.
From Chapter 3 of “How People Learn”: “Transfer begins with background knowledge, which means that background knowledge must be engaged, explored, challenged, and leveraged” (p. 62).
Leveraging the concept of transfer, connect the themes in “Educated” with previous texts or personal experiences your students have explored. After reading a section of the book, prompt them with comparative analysis questions, such as:
- “Compare Tara Westover’s educational journey with that of a character from another book you’ve read. What similarities and differences can you identify?”
- “In what ways do Tara’s experiences challenge or reinforce your views on the importance of self-education?”
These exercises encourage students to apply their background knowledge and create a bridge between various texts and their own lives, deepening their understanding and fostering critical analysis.
As you ponder how to apply these educational psychology concepts to “Educated,” consider, “How can I create opportunities for students to link their preconceptions with the transformative journey of Tara Westover?” Reflect on the unique ways your students can draw parallels between their lives and the text, leading to richer, more nuanced interpretations.
Revisit these chapters from “How People Learn” and examine additional strategies to bring students’ preconceptions to the forefront. Can you integrate more activities that make their thinking visible, such as group discussions, thematic debates, or creative projects centered on the themes of the book? How can you adapt these approaches to meet the diverse needs and backgrounds of your students in the AP English classroom?
By continuously exploring these educational psychology principles and intertwining them with the themes of “Educated,” you’ll effectively draw out and build upon your students’ pre-existing understandings, guiding them toward deeper learning and insightful analysis. Keep experimenting, reflecting, and adapting—your students’ journey with “Educated” will be profoundly enriched by your thoughtful and innovative teaching strategies!
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Hey there! I can see how the ideas presented in “How People Learn” could be quite rich for your high school Culinary Arts class. Let’s look at one specific suggestion from the text that could be bridged to your hands-on, project-based learning environment:
Quote:
“Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works. If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught” (pp. 14-15).
Application:
Before diving into a new unit like “Baking Techniques,” you could start by asking students about their own experiences and thoughts on baking. Maybe have them share what they believe are the essential steps or common mistakes. Capture these preconceptions through a quick survey or group discussion.
Why Use This Approach:
Engaging students’ preconceptions can reveal misconceptions or gaps in their knowledge. It sets a baseline and ensures that everyone starts the new lesson knowing what’s expected and what needs to be learned or corrected.
Importance:
By addressing students’ initial understanding, you lay a strong foundation that can help achieve a deeper grasp of new concepts. This is especially critical in subjects like Culinary Arts where incorrect preconceptions (like the importance of precise measurements) could lead to real-world failures.
To deepen the learning, you might then have the students apply this revised understanding immediately in a hands-on activity. For instance, let them experiment with baking a simple recipe twice—once following their initial understanding and once using the corrected approach. This way they can clearly see (and taste!) the difference.
What do you think about using students’ preconceptions as a starting point for your lessons? Do you see other ways these theoretical ideas could be bridged into activities in your culinary arts classroom?
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Hey Colleen! Drawing from the text “How People Learn,” there’s immense potential for enriching your Culinary Arts classes. Let’s stay focused on your key questions: “Using students’ preconceptions is a good way to start my lessons. How can I assess whether students retain and use new learning? When students retain preconceived notions, how can I reteach effectively?”
Assessing Retention and Use of New Learning:
From the Text:
“A metacognitive approach to instruction can help students learn to take control of their own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving them” (p. 18).
Application:
In your classroom, after introducing a new skill like “Knife Techniques,” have students set personal learning goals and periodically self-assess their progress. They could use a reflective journal or a digital portfolio to document their journey, noting any improvements or persistent challenges. This aligns with the recommendation to help students “organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application” (p. 16).
You could also employ practical assessments where students demonstrate the skill they’ve learned in various contexts. For example, evaluating their knife skills not just in a controlled environment but during the preparation of a complex dish. Observing their consistency and comfort with the technique would indicate whether the learning has been retained and internalized.
When Students Retain Preconceived Notions:
From the Text:
“If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught” (pp. 14-15).
Reteaching Strategy:
When you notice students reverting to their initial misconceptions, consider deeper, contextualized re-engagement. For example, during the “Sanitation and Food Safety” unit, if students still believe that washing hands with water alone is sufficient, set up a demonstration comparing bacteria counts before and after washing with just water versus soapy water.
Another approach is to use peer instruction. Pair students who have mastered new concepts with those who haven’t. This strategy leverages the concept that “experts and novices solve problems differently” and can aid in knowledge transfer through peer teaching.
Practical Reteaching Tactics:
- Immediate Feedback: During cooking labs, give immediate, constructive feedback when mistakes linked to preconceived notions occur. This helps to correct them on the spot, reinforcing correct practices.
- Conceptual Discussions: Following practical assessments, hold group discussions reflecting on what went wrong in tasks linked to retained misconceptions. Encouraging students to voice their thought process and correcting it in a supportive environment can help reshape their understanding.
Connecting More Dots:
To further link the text’s recommendations to your pedagogy, consider the emphasis on “learner-centered” environments (p. 23). You could adapt this by tailoring lessons to the specific social and cultural backgrounds of your students. For instance, integrating family recipes can make learning more relatable and engaging, fostering deeper personal connections to the content.
Next Steps:
Try re-reading Chapter 1, especially the segments on engaging preconceptions and developing a conceptual framework (pp. 14-20). See if you can identify additional specific preconceptions in various culinary topics you teach and strategize on how to systematically address them.
Reflection:
How do you currently measure the retention and application of new learning in your class? Could blending these evidence-based recommendations with your existing practices amplify students’ understanding and skill retention?
Your culinary arts class operates in a dynamic, hands-on domain that naturally aligns with many of these educational psychology principles. Let’s build on this synergy to create an even more engaging and effective learning environment!
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Certainly! Let’s turn some of these theoretical insights into practical classroom activities for your 2nd grade classroom.
Quote:
> “If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom” (pp. 14-15).
Practical Activity:
Concept Mapping
- Materials Needed:
– Large sheets of paper or poster board
– Markers or crayons
– Sticky notes
- Activity:
Start a new unit by asking students to draw what they already know about the topic. For example, if you’re beginning a unit on plants, ask children to draw a plant and label its parts. Have them use sticky notes to add their thoughts on what plants need to grow. As the unit progresses, update the map with new knowledge, showing how original ideas evolved.
- Why Implement It?
This engages their pre-existing knowledge and visually shows the progression of their learning. This process helps students anchor new information to what they already know.
Quote:
> “Experts notice features and meaningful patterns of information that novices do not notice” (p. 36).
Practical Activity:
Pattern Recognition Games
- Materials Needed:
– Sets of cards or objects with different shapes, colors, and patterns
- Activity:
Create a ‘Pattern Detective’ game where students have to find and describe patterns. For instance, cards with different sequences of shapes or colors can be used, and students have to group them based on identified patterns. This could be a fun and interactive way for them to start noticing and talking about patterns.
- Why Implement It?
Encouraging students to recognize and articulate patterns helps them begin to think like ‘experts’ in their own way, enhancing their observational and critical thinking skills.
Quote:
> “Initial learning is essential for transfer” (p. 53).
Practical Activity:
Real-World Connections and Reflections
- Materials Needed:
– Storybooks or short articles
– Reflection Journals
- Activity:
After teaching a concept (like the life cycle of a butterfly), read a related storybook. Ask students to relate the events in the story to what they learned in class. They can draw or write in their reflection journals about how the story connects to the real-world learning.
- Why Implement It?
By connecting classroom learning to real-world situations, students are more likely to transfer their understanding across different contexts. It also integrates literacy skills with content knowledge.
As you dive back into the text, how might you further adapt these ideas to account for the unique cultural and social perspectives of your students? Are there any particular preconceptions your students bring that could serve as a foundation for deeper learning?
Feel free to share your thoughts or adaptations!
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Certainly! Let’s turn some of these theoretical insights into practical classroom activities for your 2nd grade classroom.
Quote:
> “If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom” (pp. 14-15).
Practical Activity:
Concept Mapping
- Materials Needed:
– Large sheets of paper or poster board
– Markers or crayons
– Sticky notes
- Activity:
Start a new unit by asking students to draw what they already know about the topic. For example, if you’re beginning a unit on plants, ask children to draw a plant and label its parts. Have them use sticky notes to add their thoughts on what plants need to grow. As the unit progresses, update the map with new knowledge, showing how original ideas evolved.
- Why Implement It?
This engages their pre-existing knowledge and visually shows the progression of their learning. This process helps students anchor new information to what they already know.
Quote:
> “Experts notice features and meaningful patterns of information that novices do not notice” (p. 36).
Practical Activity:
Pattern Recognition Games
- Materials Needed:
– Sets of cards or objects with different shapes, colors, and patterns
- Activity:
Create a ‘Pattern Detective’ game where students have to find and describe patterns. For instance, cards with different sequences of shapes or colors can be used, and students have to group them based on identified patterns. This could be a fun and interactive way for them to start noticing and talking about patterns.
- Why Implement It?
Encouraging students to recognize and articulate patterns helps them begin to think like ‘experts’ in their own way, enhancing their observational and critical thinking skills.
Quote:
> “Initial learning is essential for transfer” (p. 53).
Practical Activity:
Real-World Connections and Reflections
- Materials Needed:
– Storybooks or short articles
– Reflection Journals
- Activity:
After teaching a concept (like the life cycle of a butterfly), read a related storybook. Ask students to relate the events in the story to what they learned in class. They can draw or write in their reflection journals about how the story connects to the real-world learning.
- Why Implement It?
By connecting classroom learning to real-world situations, students are more likely to transfer their understanding across different contexts. It also integrates literacy skills with content knowledge.
As you dive back into the text, how might you further adapt these ideas to account for the unique cultural and social perspectives of your students? Are there any particular preconceptions your students bring that could serve as a foundation for deeper learning?
Feel free to share your thoughts or adaptations!
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Absolutely, teaching in a fourth-grade classroom in a low-income setting provides unique opportunities to apply these foundational principles. Let’s take a closer look at a key point from the text:
> “Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works. If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom” (pp. 14-15).
This highlights the importance of addressing and connecting with students’ existing knowledge. A practical classroom application might involve starting a new topic by having a “What We Think We Know” session. For example, before starting a science unit on ecosystems, you could ask students to share their ideas about what plants and animals need to survive. This can be done through a KWL chart (Know, Want to know, Learned).
Activity:
KWL Chart Creation
1. Know (K): Ask students to write or draw what they know about ecosystems, animals, and plants. Gather these preconceptions.
2. Want to Know (W): Have students express what they want to learn about ecosystems. This can encourage curiosity and engagement.
3. Learned (L): After completing the unit, review the chart and fill in what they have learned, directly addressing any misconceptions shown in the “Know” section.
Engaging with students’ preconceptions helps in tailoring lessons that build on what they know and correct misunderstandings, leading to deeper learning and retention. It also makes their learning more relevant and meaningful, fostering a sense of connection and investment in their education.
This method aligns with educational research which shows that learning is more effective when new information is connected to existing knowledge. It underscores the necessity of creating a learner-centered classroom that values students’ backgrounds and leverages them as assets.
Considering these thoughts, how could you incorporate students’ cultural and social backgrounds into your lesson plans to make the learning experience richer and more personalized for them?
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Let’s focus on the idea from Chapter 1, where the text says, “teachers must draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that their students bring with them.” This is essential for learning because if students’ initial understanding isn’t engaged, they might not fully grasp new concepts.
Activity: “K-W-L Chart” (Know, Want to know, Learned)
1. Know: Start by asking your students what they already know about a topic. For instance, if you’re beginning a lesson on animals, ask them to share what animals they know and what they know about those animals.
2. Want to Know: Next, encourage them to ask questions about what they want to learn regarding the topic. This step helps engage their curiosity and sets learning goals.
3. Learned: After the lesson, go back to the chart and discuss what they’ve learned. This reflection helps solidify new knowledge and connects it to their initial thoughts and questions.
Why It’s Important:
- This practice acknowledges students’ prior knowledge and builds upon it, making new information more relevant and easier to understand.
- It helps teachers to identify misconceptions early and address them directly.
- This method encourages active participation and keeps students engaged.
By implementing a K-W-L chart, you not only validate students’ preconceptions but also guide them through a metacognitive process of setting learning goals and reflecting on their learning, which is crucial for deep understanding.
- After rereading the text, how might you adapt these other theoretical ideas for first-grade class activities?
- Can you think of additional ways to make students’ preexisting knowledge visible in your classroom?
I’d love to hear your thoughts on these questions!
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