Notes

  1. Jump up^

    Records of Buckinghamshire, Volume 3, BPC Letterpress, 1870, p. 68.

  2. Jump up^

    Rynn Berry, "A History of the Raw-Food Movement in the United States," in Brenda Davis and Vesanto Melina (eds.), Becoming Raw: The Essential Guide to Raw Vegan Diets, Book Publishing Company, 2010, p. 9ff.

  3. ^ Jump up to:a b

    James D. Hart, "Alcott, Amos Bronson," in The Oxford Companion to American Literature, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 14.

    • Also see Richard Francis, Fruitlands: The Alcott Family and their Search for Utopia, Yale University Press, 2010.

  4. Jump up^

    "Vegan Diets Become More Popular, More Mainstream", Associated Press/CBS News, 5 January 2011: "Ethical vegans have a moral aversion to harming animals for human consumption ... though the term often is used to describe people who follow the diet, not the larger philosophy."

    • Gary Francione and Robert Garner, The Animal Rights Debate: Abolition Or Regulation? Columbia University Press, 2010, p. 62: "Although veganism may represent a matter of diet or lifestyle for some, ethical veganism is a profound moral and political commitment to abolition on the individual level and extends not only to matters of food but also to the wearing or using of animal products. Ethical veganism is the personal rejection of the commodity status of nonhuman animals ..."

    • "Veganism", Vegetarian Times, January 1989: "Webster's dictionary provides a most dry and limiting definition of the word 'vegan': 'one that consumes no animal food or dairy products.' This description explains dietary veganism, but so-called ethical vegans – and they are the majority – carry the philosophy further."

  5. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Matthew Cole, "Veganism," in Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz (ed.), Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism, ABC-Clio, 2010, p. 241.

  6. Jump up^

    Donald Watson, Vegan News, No. 1, November 1944, and"Interview with Donald Watson", Vegetarians in Paradise, 11 August 2004.

  7. Jump up^

    Rynn Berry, "Veganism," The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 604–605.

  8. Jump up^

    Winston J. Craig, "Health effects of vegan diets", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), May 2009, pp. 1627S–1633S (review article): "Vegan diets are usually higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamins C and E, iron, and phytochemicals, and they tend to be lower in calories, saturated fat and cholesterol, long-chain n–3 (omega-3) fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B-12. ... A vegan diet appears to be useful for increasing the intake of protective nutrients and phytochemicals and for minimizing the intake of dietary factors implicated in several chronic diseases."

  9. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Note that several sources use the word vegetarian to refer to an entirely plant-based diet:

    • Claus Leitzmann, "Vegetarian diets: what are the advantages?" , Forum of Nutrition, 57, 2005, pp. 147–156 (review article): "A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that wholesome vegetarian diets offer distinct advantages compared to diets containing meat and other foods of animal origin. The benefits arise from lower intakes of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein as well as higher intakes of complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C and E, carotenoids and other phytochemicals. ... In most cases, vegetarian diets are beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis, renal disease and dementia, as well as diverticular disease, gallstones and rheumatoid arthritis."

    • Winston J. Craig, "Health effects of vegan diets", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), May 2009, pp. 1627S–1633S (review): "Vegans tend to be thinner, have lower serum cholesterol, and lower blood pressure, reducing their risk of heart disease ... A vegan diet appears to be useful for increasing the intake of protective nutrients and phytochemicals and for minimizing the intake of dietary factors implicated in several chronic diseases."

    • J. Sabaté, "The contribution of vegetarian diets to health and disease: a paradigm shift?" , American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3 Suppl), September 2003, pp. 502S–507S (review): "Diets largely based on plant foods, such as well-balanced vegetarian diets, could best prevent nutrient deficiencies as well as diet-related chronic diseases."

    • M. Nestle, "Animal v. plant foods in human diets and health: is the historical record unequivocal?" , Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 58(2), May 1999, pp. 211–218 (review): "This shift has led to increasing scientific consensus that eating more plant foods but fewer animal foods would best promote health. This consensus is based on research relating dietary factors to chronic disease risks, and to observations of exceptionally low chronic disease rates among people consuming vegetarian, Mediterranean and Asian diets. ... Most evidence suggests that a shift to largely plant-based diets would reduce chronic disease risks among industrialized and rapidly-industrializing populations."

    • Timothy J. Key, Paul N. Appleby, and M. S. Rosell, "Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets", Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 65(1), February 2006, pp. 35–41 (review).

    • A. Ströhle et al, "Vegetarian nutrition: Preventive potential and possible risks. Part 1: Plant foods", Wien Klin Wochenschr, 118(19–20), October 2006, pp. 580–593 (review).

    • L. Van Horn et al, "The evidence for dietary prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease", Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(2), February 2008, pp. 287–331 (systematic review).

    • "Building healthy eating patterns", Dietary Guidelines for Americans, United States Department of Agriculture, 2010, p. 45: "In prospective studies of adults, compared to non-vegetarian eating patterns, vegetarian-style eating patterns have been associated with improved health outcomes – lower levels of obesity, a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, and lower total mortality. Several clinical trials have documented that vegetarian eating patterns lower blood pressure.

      "On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (in particular, saturated fatty acids); fewer overall calories; and more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C than do non-vegetarians. In general, vegetarians have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians."

  10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d

    "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: vegetarian diets", Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 64(2), Summer 2003, pp. 62–81 (also available here): "Well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence."

  11. ^ Jump up to:a b

    R. Pawlak, et al. "How prevalent is vitamin B(12) deficiency among vegetarians?" , Nutrition Reviews, 71(2), February 2013, pp. 110–117 (review article): "The main finding of this review is that vegetarians develop B12 depletion or deficiency regardless of demographic characteristics, place of residency, age, or type of vegetarian diet. Vegetarians should thus take preventive measures to ensure adequate intake of this vitamin, including regular consumption of supplements containing B12."

    • Mangels, Messina, and Messina, 2011, pp. 181–192.

    • Reed Mangels, "Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet", Vegetarian Resource Group, accessed 17 December 2012: "Vitamin B12 is needed for cell division and blood formation. Neither plants nor animals make vitamin B12. Bacteria are responsible for producing vitamin B12. Animals get their vitamin B12 from eating foods contaminated with vitamin B12 and then the animal becomes a source of vitamin B12. Plant foods do not contain vitamin B12 except when they are contaminated by microorganisms or have vitamin B12 added to them. Thus, vegans need to look to fortified foods or supplements to get vitamin B12 in their diet."

    • "Vitamin B12", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health, accessed 17 December 2012.

    • Jack Norris, "Vitamin B12: Are you getting it?" , Vegan Outreach, 26 July 2006: "Contrary to the many rumors, there are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12 ... [There is an] overwhelming consensus in the mainstream nutrition community, as well as among vegan health professionals, that vitamin B12 fortified foods or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans, and even vegetarians in many cases. Luckily, vitamin B12 is made by bacteria such that it does not need to be obtained from animal products."

    • Victor Herbert. "Vitamin B12: plant sources, requirements and assay", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 48(3), September 1988, pp. 852–858.

  12. Jump up^

    Fanny Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1839, pp. 197–198: "The sight and smell of raw meat are especially odious to me, and I have often thought that if I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian, probably, indeed, return entirely to my green and salad days."

  13. Jump up^

    "Under Examination," The Dietetic Reformer and Vegetarian Messenger, Vol XI, 1884, p. 237: "There are two kinds of Vegetarians – an extreme sect, who eat no animal food whatever; and a less extreme sect, who do not object to eggs, milk, or fish ... The Vegetarian Society ... belongs to the more moderate division."

  14. Jump up^

    Karen Iacobbo and Michael Iacobbo, Vegetarians and Vegans in America Today, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, p. 142.

  15. Jump up^

    John Davis, World Veganism, International Vegetarian Union, 2012, p. 32.

  16. Jump up^

    Julia Twigg, "The Vegetarian Movement in England: 1847–1981", PhD thesis, London School of Economics, 1981.

  17. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Mahatma Gandhi, "The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism", speech to the Vegetarian Society, London, 20 November 1931: "I feel especially honoured to find on my right, Mr. Henry Salt. It was Mr. Salt's book 'A Plea for Vegetarianism’, which showed me why apart from a hereditary habit, and apart from my adherence to a vow administered to me by my mother, it was right to be a vegetarian. He showed me why it was a moral duty incumbent on vegetarians not to live upon fellow-animals. It is, therefore, a matter of additional pleasure to me that I find Mr. Salt in our midst."

  18. Jump up^

    "History of Vegetarianism: The Origin of Some Words", International Vegetarian Union, 6 April 2010: "... as early as 1851 there was an article in the Vegetarian Society magazine (copies still exist) about alternatives to leather for making shoes, there was even a report of someone patenting a new material. So there was always another group who were not just 'strict vegetarians' but also avoided using animal products for clothing or other purposes – naturally they wanted their own 'word' too, but they had a long wait."

  19. Jump up^

    Henry Stephens Salt, A Plea for Vegetarianism and other essays, The Vegetarian Society, 1886, p. 7.

    • Also see Salt, "The Humanities of Diet," in Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess (eds.), Ethical Vegetarianism: from Pythagoras to Peter Singer, State University of New York Press, 1999, p. 115ff, an extract from Salt's The Logic of Vegetarianism (1899).

    • For Salt being the first modern animal rights advocate, see Angus Taylor, Animals and Ethics, Broadview Press, 2003, p. 62.

  20. Jump up^

    Leah Leneman, "No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain, 1909–1944",Society and Animals, 7(3), 1999 (pp. 219–228), p. 220.

    • Rupert Wheldon, No Animal Food, Health Culture Co, New York-Passaic, New Jersey, 1910, pp. 11–12.

  21. Jump up^

    Leneman 1999, pp. 219–220, 222.

    • C.P. Newcombe, the editor of TVMHR, the journal of the society's Manchester branch, started a debate about it in 1912 on the letters page, to which 24 vegetarians responded. He summarized their views: "The defence of the use of eggs and milk by vegetarians, so far as it has been offered here, is not satisfactory. The only true way is to live on cereals, pulse, fruit, nuts and vegetables."

  22. Jump up^

    Leneman 1999, p. 221.

  23. Jump up^

    Mahatma Gandhi, "The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism", speech to the Vegetarian Society, London, 20 November 1931, pp. 11–14.

  24. Jump up^

    Leneman 1999, pp. 222–223. Cross wrote that to produce milk for human consumption the cow has to be separated from her calves soon after their birth: "in order to produce a dairy cow, heart-rending cruelty, and not merely exploitation, is a necessity."

  25. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Donald Watson, "The Early History of the Vegan Movement," The Vegan, Winter 1965, pp. 5–7.

  26. Jump up^

    "Interview with Donald Watson", Vegetarians in Paradise, 11 August 2004.

  27. Jump up^

    Stepaniak 2000(a))p. 5.

  28. Jump up^

    Leslie Cross, "Veganism Defined", The Vegetarian World Forum, 5(1), Spring 1951: "In a vegan world the creatures would be reintegrated within the balance and sanity of nature as she is in herself. A great and historic wrong, whose effect upon the course of evolution must have been stupendous, would be righted. The idea that his fellow creatures might be used by man for self-interested purposes would be so alien to human thought as to be almost unthinkable. In this light, veganism is not so much welfare as liberation, for the creatures and for the mind and heart of man; not so much an effort to make the present relationship bearable, as an uncompromising recognition that because it is in the main one of master and slave, it has to be abolished before something better and finer can be built."

    • The Vegan Society wrote in 1979 that the word veganism "denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude – as far as is possible and practical – all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives ..." See "Memorandum of Association of the Vegan Society", Vegan Society, 20 November 1979.

  29. Jump up^

    Harry Maher, "The Milk of Human Kindness", interview with Arthur Ling, Vegan Views, 37, Autumn 1986.

  30. Jump up^

    Stepaniak 2000(a), p. 3.

  31. Jump up^

    "World Vegan Day", Vegan Society, accessed 13 August 2009.

  32. Jump up^

    For Nimmo, see Linda Austin and Norm Hammond, Oceano, Arcadia Publishing, 2010, p. 39.

    • For Nimmo's vegan society, see Freya Dinshah, "Vegan, More than a Dream", American Vegan, Summer 2010, p. 31; for Nimmo having been a vegan since 1931, see Stepaniak 2000(a), pp. 6–7.

  33. Jump up^

    Stepaniak 2000(a), pp. 6–7; "American Vegan Society: History", American Vegan Society, accessed 17 December 2012.

  34. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Meat Atlas, Henrich Boll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe, 2014, p. 57.

  35. Jump up^

    For Ornish, Campbell, Esselstyn and Barnard informally discussing veganism and health, see Kathy Freston,Veganist: Lose Weight, Get Healthy, Change the World, Weinstein Publishing, 2011:

    • Also see:

  36. Jump up^

    Sanjay Gupta, "Gupta: Becoming heart attack proof", CNN, 25 August 2011.

  37. Jump up^

    "Vegan diets becoming more popular, more mainstream", Associated Press, 6 January 2011.

  38. Jump up^

    Jannequin Bennett and Carl Lewis, Very Vegetarian, Thomas Nelson Inc, 2001, pp. vii–ix.

  39. Jump up^

    Amanda Holpuch, "Al Gore follows Bill Clinton's lead with apparent turn to veganism", The Guardian, 26 November 2013.

  40. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Susie Mesure, "Veganism 2.0: Let them eat kale", The Independent, 8 December 2013.

  41. Jump up^

    "European Parliament legislative resolution of 16 June 2010", European Parliament: "The term 'vegan' shall not be applied to foods that are, or are made from or with the aid of, animals or animal products, including products from living animals."

  42. Jump up^

    Valraven, Michael. "Vegetarian butchers make a killing", Radio Netherlands Worldwide, 14 September 2011.

  43. Jump up^

    "Europe's first vegan supermarket opens in Dortmund", Deutsche Welle, 3 October 2011.

  44. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Amy Guttman, "Meat-Drenched Oktoberfest Warms To Vegans", National Public Radio, 4 October 2013.

  45. Jump up^

    Mark Damian Duda and Kira C. Young, "Americans' attitudes toward animal rights, animal welfare, and the use of animals," 1996 (cited in Damian and Young, "American Attitudes Toward Scientific Wildlife Management ...", Effective Public Relations and Communications, p. 10.

  46. Jump up^

    For 2006, see Charles Stahler, "How many adults are vegetarian?" , Vegetarian Journal, 25, 2006, pp. 14–15.

  47. Jump up^

    "Donald Watson", The Times, 8 December 2005.

  48. Jump up^

    Anna-Louise Taylor, "Rise of the 'semi-vegetarians'", BBC News, 25 August 2012.

  49. Jump up^

    "Wat is veganisme?" , Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme, accessed 16 December 2012.

  50. Jump up^

    Francione and Garner 2010, p. 257.

  51. Jump up^

    Francione and Garner 2010, p. 62.

  52. Jump up^

    "Criteria for Vegan food", and "Trademark Standards", Vegan Society, accessed 17 December 2012.

    • Also see "What is Vegan?" , American Vegan Society, accessed 17 December 2012: "Vegans exclude flesh, fish, fowl, dairy products (animal milk, butter, cheese, yogurt, etc.), eggs, honey, animal gelatin, and all other foods of animal origin. Veganism also excludes animal products such as leather, wool, fur, and silk in clothing, upholstery, etc. Vegans usually make efforts to avoid the less-than-obvious animal oils, secretions, etc., in many products such as soaps, cosmetics, toiletries, household goods and other common commodities."

  53. Jump up^

    "Animal ingredients and products", Vegan Peace, accessed 17 December 2012.

  54. Jump up^

    Stepaniak 2000(a), pp. 20, 115–118, 154; see p. 116 for the environmental damage associated with petroleum-based products.

  55. Jump up^

    "Egg Production & Welfare", Vegetarian Society, accessed 17 December 2012.

  56. Jump up^

    "Dairy Cows & Welfare", Vegetarian Society, accessed 17 December 2012.

  57. Jump up^

    Erik Marcus, Veganism: The New Ethics of Eating, McBooks Press, 2000, pp. 128–129.

  58. Jump up^

    "Goats", Vegetarian Society, accessed 17 January 2013.

  59. Jump up^

    Daniel Engber, "The Great Vegan Honey Debate: Is honey the dairy of the insect world?" , Slate, 30 July 2008.

  60. Jump up^

    "Honey: Ain't so sweet for the bees", Vegan Society, accessed 16 December 2012.

  61. Jump up^

    Chloe Coscarelli, Chloe's Kitchen, Simon and Schuster, 2012, p. 9.

  62. ^ Jump up to:a b c

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, pp. 256–257: "Soy protein products typically have a protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) ... >0.9, which is similar to that of meat and milk protein. Consequently, consuming the recommended dietary allowance (RDA, 0.8 mg/kg body weight [bw]), for protein entirely in the form of soy will meet the biologic requirement for amino acids. ... Formal recognition of the high quality of soy protein came in the form of a ruling by the USDA [United States Department of Agriculture] allowing soy protein to replace 100 percent of meat protein in the Federal School Lunch Program."

  63. Jump up^

    Reed Mangels, Virginia Messina and Mark Messina, The Dietitian's Guide to Vegetarian Diets, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2011, p. 444.

  64. Jump up^

    Monica Reinagel, Nutrition Diva's Secrets for a Healthy Diet, Macmillan 2011, pp. 20–21.

  65. Jump up^

    Reed Mangels. The Everything Vegan Pregnancy Book, Adams Media, 2011, p. 174.

  66. Jump up^

    "Milk (1 cup)", Dairy Council of California.

  67. Jump up^

    "Silk Unsweetened Soy Beverage", drinksilk.ca.

  68. Jump up^

    "Almond Breeze Original Unsweetened", almondbreeze.com.

  69. Jump up^

    Sarah E. Mosko, "The Cheese Challenge", E/The Environmental Magazine, 22(5), Sept–Oct 2011, pp. 38–39: "After melting and taste-testing four top brands, the site veganbaking.net concluded that vegan cheddar and mozzarella shreds made primarily from tapioca or arrowroot flour combined with various oils from Daiya had both the flavor and melt-ability to stand up to their dairy counterparts."

  70. Jump up^

    Coscarelli 2012, p. 4.

  71. Jump up^

    For Stepaniak, see Stepaniak 2000(a), p. 188.

  72. Jump up^

    Kay Stepkin, "Vegan cheese replaces lingering brie craving", Chicago Tribune, 16 January 2013.

  73. Jump up^

    Coscarelli 2012, p. 12.

  74. Jump up^

    Victoria Moran and Adair Moran, Main Street Vegan, Penguin 2012, p. 168.

  75. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 445.

  76. Jump up^

    Caldwell Esselstyn, Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease: The Revolutionary, Scientifically Proven, Nutrition-Based Cure, Penguin, 2007, p. 266.

  77. Jump up^

    Coscarelli 2012, p. 183.

  78. Jump up^

    "Egg Replacements", People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, accessed 13 December 2012.

  79. ^ Jump up to:a b

    "The New Four Food Groups", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, accessed 16 January 2013.

  80. Jump up^

    Marian Burros, "Eating Well; Rethink 4 Food Groups, Doctors Tell U.S.", The New York Times, 10 April 1991.

  81. Jump up^

    William Neuman, "Nutrition Plate Unveiled, Replacing Food Pyramid", The New York Times, 2 June 2011.

  82. Jump up^

    "The eatwell plate", National Health Service.

    • "The vegetarian diet", National Health Service: "Milk and dairy products, such as cheese and yoghurt, are great sources of protein, calcium and vitamins A and B12. This food group includes milk and dairy alternatives, such as fortified soya, rice and oat drinks, which also contain calcium."

  83. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 71; for their chapter on protein, see pp. 65–79.

  84. Jump up^

    M. Krajcovicova-Kudlackova, K. Babinska, and M. Valachovicova, "Health benefits and risks of plant proteins", Bratisl Lek Listy, 106(6–7), 2005, pp. 231–234 (review article).

  85. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, pp. 72, 78.

  86. Jump up^

    M. Messina and V. Messina, "The role of soy in vegetarian diets", Nutrients, 2(8), August 2010, pp. 855–888 (review article).

  87. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 75ff.

  88. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 77.

  89. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Reed Mangels, Virginia Messina, and Mark Messina, "Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)," The Dietitian's Guide to Vegetarian Diets, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2011, pp. 181–192.

  90. Jump up^

    Jack Norris and Virginia Messina, Vegan for Life, Da Capo Press, 2011, p. 34.

  91. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 188.

    • Herbert 1988, p. 854, citing research by James Halsted.

    • James Halsted, et al. "Serum Vitamin B12 Concentration in Dietary Deficiency", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 8(3), 1960, pp. 374–376. For information on Halsted, see Cecil J. Smith and Marian Swendseid, "James A. Halsted", The Journal of Nutrition, undated.

    • Victor Herbert writes that Sheila Callender, an English haematologist, conducted an experiment in the 1950s in which she made water extracts of faeces collected from vegans who were suffering from anaemia caused by a lack of B12, and cured the B12 deficiency by feeding them the extracts; see Herbert 1988, p. 852. For information on Callender, see David Weatherall,"Sheila Callender", British Medical Journal, 329(7470), 9 October 2004, p. 860.

  92. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 179.

    • For the point about hygiene, see Herbert 1988, p. 854: "[S]trict vegetarians who do not practice thorough hand washing or vegetable cleaning may be untroubled by vitamin B-12 deficiency."

  93. Jump up^

    "Vitamin B12", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health, 24 June 2011.

  94. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, pp. 183–184.

  95. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, pp. 182–183.

  96. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 187.

  97. ^ Jump up to:a b

    "Calcium", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health.

    • For details, see Catherine A. Ross, et al (eds.), "DRI Dietary Reference Intakes, Calcium, Vitamin D", Food and Nutrition Board, The National Academies Press, 2011, particularly pp. 35–74.

    • For a discussion of calcium and vegan/vegetarian diets, see Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 109ff.

  98. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 110.

  99. Jump up^

    P. Appleby et al, "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford", European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61(12), February 2007, pp. 1400–1406: "In conclusion, fracture risk was similar for meat eaters, fish eaters and vegetarians in this study. The higher fracture risk among vegans appeared to be a consequence of their considerably lower mean calcium intake. Vegans, who do not consume dairy products, a major source of calcium in most diets, should ensure that they obtain adequate calcium from suitable sources such as almonds, sesame seeds, tahini (sesame paste), calcium-set tofu, calcium-fortified drinks and low-oxalate leafy green vegetables such as kale ..."

    • "Calcium: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet", National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, November 21, 2013: "In the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition, bone fracture risk was similar in meat eaters, fish eaters and vegetarians, but higher in vegans, likely due to their lower mean calcium intake."

    • Also see Jack Norris, "Bones, Vitamin D, and Calcium", Vegan Outreach, 9 January 2007: "Based on research showing that vegans who consumed less than 525 mg per day of calcium had higher bone fracture rates than people who consumed more than 525 mg per day (14), vegans should make sure they get a minimum of 525 mg of calcium per day. It would be best to get 700 mg per day for adults, and at least 1,000 mg for people age 13 to 18 when bones are developing. This can most easily be satisfied for most vegans by eating high-calcium greens on a daily basis and drinking a nondairy milk that is fortified with calcium."

  100. Jump up^

    L. T. Ho-Pham et al, "Effect of vegetarian diets on bone mineral density: a Bayesian meta-analysis", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 90(4), October 2009, p. 943–950.

  101. Jump up^

    T. Colin Campbell, The China Study, Benbella Books, 2006, pp. 205–208.

  102. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f

    "Vitamin D", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health.

  103. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 209.

  104. Jump up^

    Ross et al (Food and Nutrition Board) 2011, p. 75.

  105. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 208.

  106. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, pp. 207–208.

  107. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 138ff, 143–144.

    • For a detailed discussion, see "Iron", Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, 2001, pp. 290–393.

  108. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 146.

  109. ^ Jump up to:a b

    "Iron", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health.

  110. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 143.

  111. Jump up^

    Davida Gypsy Breier and Reed Mangels, Vegan & Vegetarian FAQ: Answers to Your Frequently Asked Questions, Vegetarian Resource Group, 2001, p. 27.

  112. Jump up^

    T. A. Sanders, "The nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets", The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 58(2), 1999, pp. 265–269.

  113. Jump up^

    For the cauliflower and orange juice, see Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 142, and for the other foods, see Reed Mangels, "Iron in the Vegan Diet", The Vegetarian Resources Group.

  114. Jump up^

    Mangels, Messina and Messina 2011, p. 142.

  115. Jump up^

    "Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Health", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health.

  116. Jump up^

    Jack Norris, "Omega-3 Fatty Acid Recommendations for Vegetarians", Vegan Outreach, accessed 4 February 2011.

  117. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Paul N. Appleby et al, "The Oxford Vegetarian Study: an overview", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(3 Suppl), September 1999, pp. 525S–531S; full text here.

  118. Jump up^

    "Iodine", Vegan Outreach, 26 December 2006: "Iodine is needed for healthy thyroid function which regulates metabolism. Both too much and too little iodine can result in abnormal thyroid metabolism. ... Studies have shown that vegans in Europe (where salt is either not iodized or not iodized at high enough levels) who do not supplement (as well as those who oversupplement) have indications of abnormal thyroid function."

  119. Jump up^

    "Iodine", Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health.

  120. Jump up^

    Craig 2009 (review).

  121. Jump up^

    Craig, Winston J. "Health effects of vegan diets." The American journal of clinical nutrition 89.5 (2009): 1627S-1633S.

  122. ^ Jump up to:a b

    For Switzerland, see Paul Walter et al, "Gesundheitliche Vor- und Nachteile einer vegetarischen Ernährung", Bundesamt für Gesundheit, 11 January 2006, p. 9 (also see index of articles):

    • "Therefore, a vegan diet is not recommended for the population in general, and in particular not for children and other vulnerable groups such as pregnant women and elderly people."

    • German: "Deshalb ist die veganische Ernährungsweise generell für breitere Bevölkerungskreise insbesondere für Kinder und andere Risikogruppen wie Schwangere und ältere Leute nicht zu empfehlen."

    • "The strict vegetarian/vegan diet is not recommended for any age group because of the risks. The DGE warns against it especially for infants, children and young people."

    • German: "Die streng vegetarische/vegane Ernährung wird aufgrund ihrer Risiken für keine Altersgruppe empfohlen. Die DGE rät besonders für Säuglinge, Kinder und Jugendliche dringend davon ab."

  123. Jump up^

    Timothy J. Key et al, "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(3 Suppl), September 1999, pp. 516S-524S; full text available here: "Further categorization of diets showed that, in comparison with regular meat eaters, mortality from ischemic heart disease was 20% lower in occasional meat eaters, 34% lower in people who ate fish but not meat, 34% lower in lactoovovegetarians, and 26% lower in vegans. There were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, or all other causes combined."

  124. Jump up^

    Paul N. Appleby, Naomi E. Allen, and Timothy J. Key, "Diet, vegetarianism, and cataract risk", American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(5), 28 February 2011, pp. 1128–1135.

  125. Jump up^

    M. A. O'Connor et al, "Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases", Medical Journal of Australia, 147(11–12), 1987, pp. 540–542 (review article): "In only four (6.3 percent) of these did meat avoidance predate the onset of their anorexia nervosa."

    • Brenda Davis and Vesanto Melina, Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet, Book Publishing Company 2000, p. 224.

  126. Jump up^

    "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: vegetarian diets", Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, Summer 2003, 64(2), pp. 62–81 (also available here).

  127. Jump up^

    See American Dietetic Association, p. 754.

  128. Jump up^

    Ann Reed Mangels, "Vegetarian diets in pregnancy," in Carol Jean Lammi-Keefe, Sarah C. Couch, and Elliot H. Philipson (eds.), Handbook of Nutrition and Pregnancy. Humana Press, 2008, p. 215.

  129. Jump up^

    M. R. Pepper and M. M. Black, "B12 in fetal development",Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology, 22(6), August 2011, pp. 619–623 (review).

  130. Jump up^

    American Dietetic Association, p. 753.

  131. Jump up^

    Mary Frances Picciano and Michelle Kay McGuire, "Dietary supplements during pregnancy: Needs, efficacy, and safety," in Carol Jean Lammi-Keefe, Sarah C. Couch, and Elliot H. Philipson (eds.), Handbook of Nutrition and Pregnancy, Humana Press, 2008, p. 200.

  132. Jump up^

    Rob Davies, "Couple face questioning after vegan daughter suffers bone disease", The Daily Telegraph, 8 June 2008.

  133. Jump up^

    "Fruit diet mother found dead", BBC News, 21 August 2003.

  134. Jump up^

    Kate Moisse, "Atlanta Couple Gets Life for Starving 6-Week-Old Son", ABC News, 13 September 2011.

  135. Jump up^

    "Trademark Standards" and Trademark search, British Vegan Society.

  136. Jump up^

    "Welcome", Beauty Without Cruelty; beautywithoutcruelty.com;"Cruelty-free toiletries", Animal Aid; Honesty Cosmetics.

  137. Jump up^

    Vegan products, Kiss My Face; "Happy World Vegan Day!" , Lush;"Vegan BB cream souffles", Haut Minerals.

  138. Jump up^

    Sasha-wyatt Minter. "Beauty Without Cruelty- Approved Products", All4Women.co.za, 9 September 2009; "Philosophy", Esse Organic Skincare; "Accredited Cruelty-Free Vegan Companies", Choose Cruelty Free.

  139. Jump up^

    Animal Ingredients A to Z. E. G. Smith Collective, 2004, 3rd edition.

  140. Jump up^

    Carol J. Adams, The Sexual Politics of Meat, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2000, p. 14: "Behind every meal of meat is an absence: the death of the animal whose place the meat takes. ... The function of the absent referent is to keep our 'meat' separated from any idea that she or he was once an animal ... to keep something from being seen as having been someone."

  141. Jump up^

    Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights, University of California Press, 1983, p. 243, 333–334, 394.

  142. Jump up^

    Francione and Garner 2010, p. 62ff.

    • Also see Interview with Gary Francione, vimeo, 2009, from 13:53 mins: "We all believe it's wrong to inflict unnecessary suffering and death on animals. ... So now the next question becomes "what do we mean by necessity?" Well, whatever it means, whatever abstract meaning it has, if it has any meaning whatsoever, its minimal meaning has to be that it's wrong to inflict suffering and death on animals for reasons of pleasure, amusement or convenience – because if it's all right to inflict suffering and death on animals for reasons of pleasure, amusement or convenience, then you've got a loophole that's now so large you could drive a truck through it. So if the moral notion that we all accept, if that has any meaning, then it has got to be the case that we can't inflict suffering and death on animals for reasons of pleasure, amusement or convenience. Okay. Problem is 99.9999999 percent of our animal use can only be justified by reasons of pleasure, amusement or convenience. It's gotta go."

  143. Jump up^

    Erik Marcus, "Erik Marcus Debates Professor Francione on Abolition vs. Animal Welfare", Erik's Diner, 25 February 2007, from c. 2:20 mins (transcript).

  144. Jump up^

    Peter Singer, Practical Ethics, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 50.

  145. Jump up^

    Catherine Clyne, "Singer Says", Satya magazine, October 2006; Singer 1999, p. 60ff.

  146. Jump up^

    Peter Singer and Jim Mason, The Way We Eat, Rodale, 2006, pp. 282–283.

  147. Jump up^

    Clyne, October 2006.

  148. Jump up^

    Bruce Friedrich, "Personal Purity versus Effective Advocacy", PETA, 2006.

  149. Jump up^

    Francione and Garner 2010, pp. 72–73.

  150. ^ Jump up to:a b

    Shapiro 2010.

  151. Jump up^

    Henning Steinfeld et al, Livestock's Long Shadow (large pdf file). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2006, p. 3.

  152. Jump up^

    Livestock's Long Shadow, p. 272.

  153. Jump up^

    Felicity Carus, "UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet", The Guardian, 2 June 2010.

  154. Jump up^

    Heinz-Ulrich Neue, "Methane emission from rice fields",BioScience, 43(7), 1993, pp. 466–473.

  155. Jump up^

    Christian J. Peters, Jennifer Wilkins, and Gary W. Ficka, "Testing a complete-diet model for estimating the land resource requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York State example", Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 22(2), 2008, pp. 145–153.

  156. Jump up^

    Jim Mason and Peter Singer, Animal Factories: What Agribusiness is Doing to the Family Farm, the Environment and Your Health, Harmony Books, 1990.

  157. ^ Jump up to:a b

    S. L. Davis, "Least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet", Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics, 2001, pp. 440–450.

  158. Jump up^

    Andy Lamey, "Food Fight! Davis versus Regan on the Ethics of Eating Beef", Journal of Social Philosophy, 38(2), 2009 (pp. 331–348), p. 331.

  159. Jump up^

    Gaverick Matheny, "Least Harm: A Defense of Vegetarianism from Steven Davis's Omnivorous Proposal", Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 16(5), 2003, pp. 505–511.

  160. Jump up^

    Lamey 2009, pp. 336, 338.

  161. Jump up^

    Lamey 2009, p. 344.

Further reading

Books (vegan diet)
  • Brazier, Brendan. Thrive Foods: 200 Plant-Based Recipes for Peak Health, Da Capo Press, 2011.
  • Coscarelli, Chloe. Chloe's Kitchen, Simon and Schuster, 2012.
  • Hobbs, Suzanne Havala. Living Dairy-Free For Dummies, John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Jamieson, Alexandra. Living Vegan For Dummies, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
  • Jurek, Scott with Friedman, Scott. Eat and Run: My Unlikely Journey to Ultramarathon Greatness, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012.
  • Mangels, Reed; Messina, Virginia; and Messina, Mark. The Dietitian's Guide to Vegetarian Diets, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2011.
  • Mangels, Reed. The Everything Vegan Pregnancy Book, Adams Media, 2011.
  • Norris, Jack. Vegan for Life: Everything You Need to Know to Be Healthy and Fit on a Plant-Based Diet, Da Capo Lifelong Books, 2011.
  • Schinner, Mikoyo. Artisan Vegan Cheese, Book Publishing Co., 2012.
  • Stone, Gene (ed.) . Forks Over Knives: The Plant-Based Way to Health, The Experiment, 2011.
  • Wasserman, Debra and Mangels, Reed (eds.) . Vegan Handbook, Vegetarian Resource Group, 2010.
Books (general)
  • Conway, Gordon. One Billion Hungry: Can We Feed the World?, Cornell University Press, 2012.
  • Francis, Richard. Fruitlands: The Alcott Family and their Search for Utopia, Yale University Press, 2010.
  • Rudy, Kathy. Loving Animals: Toward a New Animal Advocacy, University of Minnesota Press, 2011.
  • Safran Foer, Jonathan. Eating Animals, Hamish Hamilton, 2010.
Articles/lectures
Films
Early vegan/vegetarian texts (chronological)

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